La ?*Si « i*w$Mfci K**, **& /1d&—d2 bums ^ SSUWV Utrf. ioyjtiai ^pEHgrORKBOTANICALCARP^ l^n-a TRANSACTIONS OF THE CONNECTICUT ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. VOLUME XI, (CENTENNIAL VOLUME) PART II. ■♦•-♦-♦♦- NEW HAVEN: PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY. 1901-1902. THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR COMPANY. TRANSACTIONS OF THE CONNECTICUT ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. VOLUME XI, (CENTENNIAL VOLUME) PAET II. lRY YORK JANICAL GARDEN NEW HAVEN: UBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY. 1901-1902. THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR COMPANY. Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1903, by Addison E. Verrill, for the Academy ; in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at "Washington. r OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY, 1902-1903. President. ADDISON E. VERRILL. Vice President. RUSSELL H. CHITTENDEN. Secretary. ALEXANDER W. EVANS. Librarian. ADDISON VAN NAME. Treasurer. MORRIS F. TYLER. Pi i b lish ing Go mmittee. GEORGE J. BRUSH. ADDISON E. VERRILL. RUSSELL II. CHITTENDEN. EDWARD S. DANA. CHARLES S. HASTINGS. CHARLES E. BEECHER. ADDISON VAN NAME. Auditing Committee. ADDISON E. VERRILL. ADDISON VAN NAME. COKfTEHSTTS. Article X. — The Bermuda Islands : Their Scenery, Climate, Pro- ductions, Physiography, Natural History, and Geology ; with sketches of their early history and the changes due to man. By Addison E. Verrill. Plates 65-104 41 3 Figures in first column refer to the author's special edition ; those in the second column are the original pages. Part I. General Description of the Scenery, Climate, Harbors, Waters, Vege- tation, Birds, Eoads, Historical Localities, Ruined Forts, etc. Figures 1-22 4; 416 Part II 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 19a. 20. 21. Figures, Physiography, including Meteorology, etc. Figures.. Geographical Position Form and Extent of the Islands and Eeef s Hills, Valleys, Sinks, Brackish Ponds, Swamps Fallen Caverns ; Natural Fish Ponds Harbors and Sounds. Figures Mangrove Swamps . . . Caverns and Grottoes. Figures. _ Shore Cliffs ; Natural Arches ; Pinnacles Cathedral Rocks. Figures Sand Dunes and Drifting Sands Anchorages or Submerged Lagoons ; Bottom Deposits The Reefs and Flats Serpuline Atolls or ' ' Boilers " Figures . Channels or Natural Cuts through the Reefs Tides and Currents The Soil ; its Origin and Composition . Chemical Analyses of Bermuda Soils Climate a. Rainfall; Hail; Thunder-storms; Fogs; Moisture b. Winds, Hurricanes, Gales c. Temperature ; Frost, Ice, Snow d. Meteorological Tables c. Drouths and Famines /. Temperature of the Sea . .. Remarkable instance of the Death of Fishes, etc., due to cold- ness of the Sea, in 1901 Comparative Tables of Temperature and Wind Earthquakes Health and Diseases ; Longevity ; Historical Epidemics ; Mos- quitoes .... 52 464 52 464 53 465 54 466 56 468 57 469 58 470 58 471) 60 472 61 473 62 474 70 482 71 483 74 486 74 486 77 489 78 490 80 492 82 494 83 495 84 496 86 498 87 499 91 503 91 503 91 503 96 508 98 510 98 ; 510 v i Contents. 22. Principal Productions and Exports, historically treated 105 o. Ambergris, Lumber, Fish, etc 105 b. Tobacco; Salt 10G c. Whale Fishery ; Sharks Oil .. 109 d. Silk, Castor Oil, Olive Oil, etc Ill e. Sugar, Cassava or Tapioca, Wheat, etc 112 /. Bananas, Pineapples, Oranges, Lemons, etc 113 rj. Corn or Maize _. .- - 115 h. Potatoes, Onions, Tomatoes 110 i. Arrow-root . . . . 119 ./. Easter Lilies, etc 119 517 517 518 521 523 524 525 527 528 531 531 Part III. Changes in the Flora and Fauna due to Man, with a Sketch of the Discovery and Early History 120: 532 23. Discovery and Early History ; Historical Shipwrecks 121 ; 533 a. Shipwreck of the Bonaventura, 1593. Figures 122; 534 b. Shipwreck of the Sea Venture, 1609 125 ; 537 c. Settlement of the Bermuda Islands in 1612 133; 545 d. Fatal Famine in 1614-15 ; the ' ' Feagues "... 140 ; 552 e. Tobacco Cultivation, as connected with the Early His- tory of the Islands 143 ; 555 /. Slavery ; Negroes ; Indians ; Whites ; Abolition of Slavery in 1834 148 ; 560 (j. Population at different periods 156; 568 24. Character and Origin of the Original Flora 159 ; 571 a. Endemic Plants. Figures 161; 573 b. Localized Plants. Figures 162; 574 c. Sea-side Plants. Figuies 166; 578 d. Origin of the Native Flora. 175; 587 25. Destructive Effects of Wild Hogs (before 1612) ; Wood Rats ; Snails, Slugs, etc 177; 589 a. Effects of the Wild Hogs . . 177; 589 b. Effects of the Plague of Wood Rats, 1614-1618 178; 590 o. Effects of Injurious Insects, Snails and Slugs 179; 591 d. Destructive Effects of Drouths ISO : 592 26. Effects of Deforesting. 181; 593 a. Bermuda Palmetto (Sabal Blackbumiana Glaz.); its History and Uses. Figures 181: 593 b. Bermuda Cedar (Juniperus Bermudiana L.) ; its His- tory and Uses. Figures 187; 599 c. Yellow- wood Tree (Xanthoxylu m m amaticurn); its His- tory 197; 609 d. Yellow-wood Tree and the Legends of Buried Treasures 198; 610 e. Other Native Trees and Shrubs partially destroyed 2u? ; 619 /. Native Wild Olive ; Olive-wood Bark ; and Button-wood Tree 208; 020 . Green Turtle (Ghelonia mydas). Figure 280 ; 692 e. Hawksbill ; Caret ; Tortoise-shell Turtle (Caretta imbri- eata). Figure 282; 694 d. Loggerhead (Thalassochelys caretta). Figure 283; 695 e. Leather-back ; Trunk Turtle ; Leather Turtle (Sphargis coriacea). Figure 285 ; 697 f. Bermuda Lizard (Eumeces longirostris Cope). Figure.. 285 32. Decrease of certain Fishes and Shellfish 266 a. Former Abundance of Fishes. Figures 286 b. Eockfishes, Groupers, Hogfish, etc. Figures 289 e. Bermuda Lobster (Panulirus argus). Figure 293 d. Land Crabs (Gecareinus lateralis Frein., etc.). Figure. 294 e. Devil Fish ; Octopus ; Scuttle (Octopus rugosus Bosc.) . . 295 /. Gastropods: Whelks ; Conchs ; etc. 296 ;/. Bivalves: Scallops; Oysters; Mussels, etc 297 697 698 698 701 705 706 707 708 709 viii Contents. 88. Introduction of Domestic Animals — -its : TIG a. Willi Hogs; their extermination 298; 7!0 //. Plague of Wood Rats, 1014-1618; cause of its disap- 712 717 718 719 719 720 720 pearance - .. - — ... 300 .-. Common Hats and Mice: Bats 305 ,/. Wild or Half-wild Cats 306 e. Cattle and other Animals 307 /. Eorses - BO'S 34. Introduction of Bii'ds 308 a. Poultry - .. 308 /- Game Birds: American Quail or Bobwhite, figure; Grouud Dove, etc. _ _ 309 ; 72 1 c. Singing Birds : Tree Sparrow ; Goldfinch, figure; Wheat- car ; Starling, figure ; Mocking Bird, figure ; American Goldfinch, figure; etc .. 310; 722 35. Introduction (if Reptiles and Amphibians 313: 725 a. Reptiles: the American Blue-tailed Lizard; (Anolis principalis L.) Figure 313 ; 725 b. Amphibians : Great Surinam Toad ; Agua Toad (Bufo agua Daud.). Figures .-- 314:726 36. Introduction of Land Mollusca ; Snails and Slugs 315 : 727 a. Native Species. Figures — 315 ; 727 //. Introduced Snails : some Injurious Species. Figures.. 318 ; 730 c. Slugs. Figures 322 ; 734 :'»7. Introduction of Insects — 323 : ?:'>•"» a. Native Species mentioned by Early Writers 323 ; 735 b. Modes of Introduction 325 ; 737 c. Diptera (Flies; Mosquitoes, etc.). Figures... 328 ; 740 d. Aphaniptera (Fleas ; Jigger). Figures. 337 ; 749 e. Hymenoptera (Bees; Wasps; Ichneumon Flies; Ants, etc.). Figures. 338 ; 750 /. Lepidoptera (Butterflies ; Moths). Figures 344 ; 756 (j. Trichoptera (Caddis-flies) 370 ; 782 //. Neuroptera (Lace-wings ; Ant-lions). Figures. 370 ; 782 /. Ca/iujiirru (Beetles; Weevils). Figures 372 : 7*4 /. Hemiptera (Bugs; Cicada; Plant-lice; Scale-insects; Thrips, etc.). Figures. 386 ; 798 A. Pseudoneuroptera (Dragon-flies, etc.). Figures 400 ; 812 /. Mallophaga (Bird-lice). Figures 407 ; 819 in. Orthoptera (Grasshoppers; Cockroaches, etc.). Figures 409 ; 821 a. Dermaptera (Earwigs)). Figures 415:827 o. Thysanura (Lepisma ; Silver-witch). Figures 416 ; 828 :; v Introduction of Arachnids and Myriapods 417 ; 829 a. Araneina (Spiders). Figures 417:829 b. Acarina (Mites ; Ticks). Figures 428 ; 840 c. Myriapoda (Centipedes ; ('.alley-worms, etc.). Figures. 430 ; 842 39. Introduction of Terrestrial Isopods (Pill-bugs, etc.). Figures 432 ; 844 Contents. IX 40. 41. Introduction of Earthworms; Land Nemerteans, etc 432 ; 844 a. OUgochceta (Earth- worms). Figures 432 ; 844 6. Land Nemerteans. Figure 435 ; 847 c. Land Planarians. Figure — 436 ; 848 Introduction of Marine Species ; Feasibility of the Introduc- tion of Useful Species. 436 ; 848 Bibliography ; Principal Works referred to Addenda . . _ Former Yellow Fever Epidemics Conspiracy of 1761-2 Eemarkable Rainfall, 1886 Bats . Zoology of Godet's Book Capture of Gunpowder, 1775 Letter of Admiral Somers, 1610 Punishment of Crimes Witchcraft Trials Public Garden Wild Birds Protection Act Food of Bermuda Lizard - Additional Insects Scorpions Gov. Wm. Reid: his unpublished letters to W. C. Redfield Errata . . List of Figures in the text . . Explanation of Plates Index. L_. Table of Contents, etc 437 849 453; 865 453 ;865 454 ,866 454 ;866 455 ;867 456 ,868 460 872 461 ;873 462 ; 874 466 ;878 474 886 474 ; 886 477 ;889 477 ; 889 482 ;894 483 ;895 484 ; 896 485 ;897 495 ;907 501 ;913 v-x v-x Note : Part IV, Geology ; and Part V, Marine Zoology, are to appear in another volume. Figure 243. — Bermuda Flying Fish. Spanish Rock. Figure 244. — Ancienl inscription on "Spanish Rock," after Lefroy, 1879. It has been attributed by most writers to Ferdinando Camelo, a native of Por- tngal, who received an abortive cbartrr for tbe settlement of Bermuda from the King of Spain, about 1527. But there is no evidence that he ever visited the islands. If the monogram ever stood for his name the C has now dis- appeared by weathering. Quite possibly this has happened. At present, the monogram more resembles TK or FK. It is more probable that it is the only known record of the survivors of some disastrous shipwreck in 1543, who may have lived for some time on these islands, and perhaps died here. Possibly only a single individual survived, and be may have lived alone for years, like "Robinson Crusoe." The presence of a cross would rather exclude the theory that it was left by pirates or buccaneers. This is probably one of the mementoes of the supposed visits of the Spanish before the English settlement, mentioned by Gov. Butler, in 1619: " Witnesse eertaine crosses Left erected upon rocks and promontories." He also refers to old Swinish coins that had been found here by the early settlers. The inscription, which was originally deeply cut in the limestone ledge, is gradually becoming !■ ^s distinct, due partly to weathering and partly to vandal- ism of \i~itoi- A casl of it is preserved in the Public Library, at Hamilton. X. — The Bermuda Islands : their Scenery, Climate, Produc- tions, Physiography, Natural History, and Geology ; with Sketches of their Early History and the Changes Due to Man.* By Addison E. Verrill. In the preparation of the following descriptive account of the Ber- muda Islands, 1 have aimed to provide a work that may meet most of the needs of large numbers of persons who go to the islands annually for health, pleasure, or study, and who may wish to learn as much as possible about the islands and their principal productions, without being obliged to consult a library, or burden themselves with many books.f At the same time I have tried to make it so comprehensive and accurate, both as to text and illustrations, that it may serve as a standard reference book for students and libraries generally, in respect to the various subjects treated, though many of them are here necessarily treated rather briefly. In regard to the Marine Zoology, which is a very extensive subject, requiring hundreds of additional illustrations, the rather brief and general accounts here included are intended to be in a popular form, and to illustrate the more conspicuous and important species, such as visitors are likely to meet with and wish to know about. But I do not intend to give here complete lists of the species in any of the larger groups, for that would require a large volume. J Much fuller accounts of the Marine Zoolog} 7 will be provided in a series of monographs now being prepared by the author and others. Some of these have already been published, and others are nearly ready for the press. § The observations and collections on which this work is based were chiefly made during two expeditions to the Bermudas : one made in the spring of 1898, when I Avas accompanied by three students from * Copyright 1902, by A. E. Verrill. f It should be understood that most of the fishes and other marine animals and much of the vegetation are identical with those of the Bahamas, Porto Rico, and other West Indian Islands, so that this work will also be useful in any of these islands. % The total number of marine species now known is over 1000. Of fishes there are about 200 species. § See the Bibliography at the end of this work. til A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University, viz. Messrs. C. M. Cook, Jr., Clarence S. Verrill, and Wra. E. Porter, who did most excel- lent and valuable work in helping me to gather very lai'ge collections; and another expedition, made in the spring of 1901, with my son, A. Hyatt Verrill, who not only made large collections, but also made numerous colored drawings of the soft-bodied marine forms, and about 200 excellent photographs, both geological and zoological, including numerous photographs of living animals beneath the water, and of living birds in their natural haunts. For a short time we were joined by Dr. W. G. Van Name, who devoted himself mainly to the Tunicata, and has since published a monograph of them. Besides the two large collections, made by myself and parties, I have had for study, during many years, collections made by Messrs. J. Matthew Jones, G. Brown Goode, and others. For historical subjects, I have consulted numerous works,* and have quoted verbatim from some of them, when it seemed desirable to preserve the exact wording and quaint spelling of the early writers. The Memorials of Bermuda, by Governor Lefroy, 2 volumes, 1877, is by far the most important work for the early history of the islands, and I have quoted from it freely. In some respects the Bermuda Islands are almost unique. Very few other islands, of similar size and situated in a favorable climate, were destitute of aborigines when discovered by Europeans. Appar- ently man had never set foot on the Bermudas until they were discovered by the Spaniards, about 1510. The number of species of land animals and plants peculiar to the Bermudas is unusually small for islands of this character. No other islands situated so far from the equator are surrounded by living coral-reefs, and the hills of drifted and hardened shell-sand are unusually high for such a formation. The outer reefs, with their enclosed lagoons, resemble the coral islands or atolls of the Pacific, but they are not of the same nature. They are the eroded remains of limestone islands, once of large size and considerable height, like those still left, but much larger. They may, therefore, be called pseudatolls. During recent years these islands have been much visited by Americans, during the winter and spring months, either for health or pleasure, or both. This is partly due to the fact that they have become much better known than formerly, and perhaps still more to * For the titles of the more important historical works, see the Bibliography, at the end of this work. A. JE. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 415 the greater facilities for reaching the islands and the excellent hotels now established there.* At present about three thousand Americans visit the islands every winter, and the number is rapidly increasing. The smooth and romantic roads are ideal places for driving and cycling. The transparent waters of the nearly enclosed harbors and bays afford excellent places for boating, yachting, and fishing. The beautiful views available for artists are endless, but the glorious colors of the waters and sky are beyond the dreams of art. Many visitors to the islands are naturally more or less interested in the unfamiliar or novel character of the subtropical vegetation ; in the unusual forms of animal life abounding in the sea, or on the coral reefs ; and in the strange geological phenomena, as displayed in the curiously eroded cliffs and pinnacles of the shores ; in the grottoes and caverns hung with huge stalactites, and with clear blue sea-water beneath ; in the curious limestone formations, seen even in the deep cuts made for the highways ; and in the ever moving sand- dunes, composed of wind-drifted white shell-sand. Many other unusual effects are due to the peculiar structure of the islands, where the only rock is limestone, made from corals and shells, and the only soil is an insoluble residue left after the decomposition of this lime- stone, but yet sufficiently abundant and fertile to support luxuriant vegetation. The association of some of the localities with the poems of Thomas Moore, who resided here four months in 1804, is a source of interest to many visitors. Those who are historically inclined can also find much of interest in connection with the ruined forts on the distant uninhabited islands and in the antiquated buildings at St. George's and elsewhere, as well as in the ancient records of the colony. Many professional naturalists and scientific students visit the islands, because they are so favorabty situated for the study of trop- ical and subtropical life, and especially because the facilities for studying living reef-corals and the various forms of life associated with them on the coral reefs are here exceptionally favorable, and the climate is agreeable and more healthy than on most tropical and sub- tropical islands. The people are also very hospitable and kindly disposed toward scientific visitors. Bright colored tropical fishes can also be easily procured here, and many have been taken hence to New York, to stock the public aquarium in the old Castle Garden. * The distance from New York is 675 nautical miles, and the passenger steamers of the Quebec Line usually make the trip in fifty to sixty hours. 416 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. Many of these fishes take the hook readily, and afford excellent sport for those who are fond of sea-fishing. Among those that are most esteemed for the table are the Green Angel-fishes, Kockfishes, sometimes of great size, Groupers, Grunts of several kinds, Snappers, Bonito, Guelly, Hogfish, Amberfish, Gogglers, and many other. Part I. — General Descriptions of the Scenery, Climate, Harbors, Waters, Vegetation, Birds, Roads, Historical Localities, Ruined Forts, etc. These islands are situated east of the main current of the Gulf Stream, but yet so near it that their shores are always bathed in the pure blue, warm Gulf Stream water, and for this reason the climate is remarkably equable for this latitude. Frost is practically unknown, though light frosts have occurred a very few times, at long intervals. Temperatures slightly below 50° F. are not infre- quent in winter. The winter months and March are cool, the average temperature being from 59.5° to 60.5° F. and there are many chill} r , windy, and rainy days, especially with northerly winds, when one needs thick clothing out of doors, and artificial heat within. Indeed, many vis- itors from the north find it much cooler than they had expected, and are disappointed in not being able to wear thin clothes all the time. It is not well to trust in this case too much to the, poetic descriptions of enthusiasts. Persons in feeble health should always secure rooms that can be heated when necessary and should have woolen clothing. April and May, and the first half of June, are the most delightful months. In midsummer the air becomes very moist and sultry, but not very hot, seldom exceeding 87° F. The climate will be more fully discussed in a later chapter.* The Bermudas are nearly due east of Charleston, S. C, and 575 nautical miles from Cape Hatteras, which is the nearest land. From *The following lines, from a beautiful poem of Thomas Moore, would indi- cate a warmer climate than actually exists there, especially at the season when he wrote, for he was in Bermuda only from January to the 5th of May : — '• No, ne'er did the wave in its element steep An island of lovelier charms : It blooms in the giant embrace of the deep, Like Hebe in Hercules' arms. The blush of ymi i' bowers is light to the eye, And their melody halm to the ear ; But the fiery plaint of day is too high, And the Snow Spirit never comes here." A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 417 Cape Sable, Nova Scotia, they are distant 675 nautical miles, south; and 830 miles north from Porto Rico, so that they offer a nearly midway resting place for many flocks of migratory birds that ordi- narily fly directly from Nova Scotia to the West Indies. These migratory birds have doubtless brought the seeds of many plants to the islands. The visible islands form a somewhat hook-shaped group with the concavity on the northern side, facing the great lagoon, and with the main axis running nearly northeast and southwest. The form of the dry land may be more accurately compared to a partially closed Figure 1. — A Bermuda Residence in winter; at Hamilton. hand, seen in profile, and with the thumb and nearly approximated finger-tips guarding the entrance to Great Sound and Hamilton Harbor, the latter lying in the axil of the thumb; and the Navy Yai'd at Ireland Island,* on the tip of the index finger, while the wrist is represented by the eastern part of the group. (See map, fig. 26.) The dry land of the islands amounts to only about 19^- square miles, or about 12,373 acres. But the extensive submerged reefs and the enclosed lagoons and shoals cover an elliptical area of about 230 square miles, all of which was once dry land. Most * Ireland Island can best be reached by a small ferry boat that runs across from Hamilton. Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XI. April, 1902. lis A. E. Verritt — The Bermuda Islands. of the larger islands are connected by bridges and the great cause- way, so that one can drive the entire length of the group, which is about 22 miles, following the road. There is only one ship-channel bv which vessels of any considera- ble size can pass through the reefs and enter the anchorages of the north side, or the harbor of Hamilton. The harbor of St. George's and Castle Harbor are entered from the south side, but the channels are not deep enough for very large vessels, although the principal one was blasted out, over the bar, to the depth of 10 feet, about 45 years ago, and efforts have recently been made to deepen it to 22 or 24 feet. The main ship-channel through the reefs to the Navy Yard and to Hamilton Harbor is deep enough for the largest naval vessels, but it is narrow and crooked, and although well buoyed, local pilots are required by the passenger steamers, and the passage is not made at night. There are two good lighthouses. The largest is the Gibb's Hill Light, near the western end of the main island. It is an iron tower, about 117 feet high, situated on top of a hill 245 feet high, so that the total height is 3G2 feet. (See figure 2.) The powerful light can Figure 2.- Gibb's Hill Lighthouse, as seen from the sea, bearing N.E. by North. be seen at a distance of about 25 miles, from an elevation of 10 feet. or 30 miles from an elevation of 40 feet. (Plate lxv, fig. 2.) This was required on account of the extremely dangerous outer reefs, that often lie from 8 to 10 miles from the land, to the north and west. The other lighthouse is on St. David's Island, at the eastern eud of the group, and near the main ship-channel. It is well known that these islands, which were discovered about 1510, by Juan de Bermudez, were greatly dreaded by the early navigators, and were regarded by some of them as the abode of A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 419 demons, on account of the hidden reefs, which made it very danger- ous to approach them, even at a great distance. The early writers called them " Devills Hands ; " " Hands of Devills," and other similar names.* Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1595, referred to the Bermudas in this way: "The rest of the Indies for calmes and diseases very trouble- some, and the Bermudas a hellish sea for thunder and lightning and stormes." This idea prevailed up to about 1600, when two successive ship- wrecks and the escape of the survivors led to more accurate descrip- tions of the islands and reefs, and almost immediately to their settle- ment by the English. But it was many yeai'S after they were settled before a survey of the main ship-channel was made with sufficient accuracy to allow large vessels to enter with safety. Governor Murray, in 1798, made the first reliable survey and located the ship- channel, and the anchorage inside, which still bears his name. For about two hundred years, or up to 1815, St. George's was the capital, and its harbor was the principal one in use. There are several other smaller and shallower passages or " cuts " through the outer reefs, some of which are sometimes used by the smaller local vessels, but they are mostly crooked, and dangei'ous, except in pleas- ant weather. (See Part II, ch. 14, and map, fig. 20.) Elies Bay, at the western side of Somerset Island, was used as a harbor, to a considerable extent, in former times, the entrance being through Hogcut Channel at the southwestern end of the Main Island. The water is usually so transparent that the reefs can easily be seen at a distance, even when covered by a considerable depth of water, for they appear like dark masses, against the white shell-sand bottom of the surrounding deeper water. Their dark color is due to the luxuriant growth of brown sea-weeds (mostly Sargassum), corals, etc., with which their tops are always covered. Thus the navigation of the inner waters is rendered comparatively easy and safe for small vessels, even where reefs abound. But there are large * Silvanus Jourdan, one of the party shipwrecked here with Sir George Somers, in 1609, alluded to this superstition as follows :— "And hereby also, I hope to deliver the world from a foule and generall errour : it being counted of most, that they can be no habitation for Men, but rather given over to Devils and wicked Spirits; whereas indeed wee find them now by experience, to bee as habitable and commodious as most Countries of the same climate and situation : insomuch as if the entrance into them were as easie as the place it selfe is contenting, it had long ere this beene inhabited as well as other Hands." 420 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. areas of the lagoons that are entirely free of reefs. (See map, fig. 26.) These clear, sheltered waters are ideal places for yachting. With a small launch and a native pilot one could spend many delightful days cruising among the innumerable small and picturesque islands, and studying the structure and varied life of the curious reefs and "boilers"; but nearly all of our work was done with row-boats. The outer reefs, five to eight miles off the northern and western shores, present an almost unbroken barrier to the great seas. They are laid bare in many places at low tide, and other larger areas are then only covered by two or three feet of water, so that the seas break heavily upon them. After entering the great lagoon, through the main ship-channel, the steamers have to go nearly the whole length of the islands, along the north shore, not far from the land, and then make abrupt turns beyond Spanish Point and through narrow and crooked passages between the numerous small islands, to enter Hamilton Harbor, which is thus admirably protected by nature. Bermuda is an important British naval and military station, and many of the hills and small islands are surmounted by forts, new or old. Some of the early ones w T ere built before 1622. These are now useless and in ruins, but some of the ruins are very picturesque and curious. On Ireland Island, nearly opposite Hamilton Harbor, is the navy yard, with the famous great floating dry-dock,* the marine hospital, and other public buildings. More or less of the English naval vessels can always be seen anchored near there, as well as war vessels of other countries. The appearance of the landscape, along the eastern and northern parts of the islands, as one sees it from the steamer, is far from promising, and is, indeed, apt to be rather disappointing to stran- gers. For much of the land lying near the north shore Avas long ago entirely stripped of its originally dense forests of cedar and palmetto, and has become so dry and barren, by the washing away of most of the soil, that nothing will grow there, except scattered * A much larger new floating dry-dock has been recently built in England to take the place of the old one. It was launched on the Tyne, Feb. 8, 1902. The new one is 545 feet long ; 5334 leet high ! 100 feet wide inside, or 126 feet over all, and it can lift a vessel weighing 15,500 tons, or if necessary, 17,500 tons; walls 13 feet thick. It has about twice the capacity of the old one, which was built in 1869. The latter is 381 feet long and 84 feet wide inside, with a lifting power of 8,000 tons. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 421 and stunted cedars, with a few hardy shrubs and wiry grasses. Ledges of gray limestone project through the thin soil, and most of this resrion looks desolate and barren, as seen from the steamer. Indeed, the northern hillsides of St. George's and the eastern end of the Main Island look as bleak and sterile as the poorest and most barren of the rocky sheep-pastures of New England. The dwarfed Bermuda cedars look much like the red cedars of southern New England in barren situations. But the early writers all agree that St. George's was at first heavily wooded with cedars and palmettoes, like nearly all the other islands having soil, including: even the the small islets of much less elevation, many of which are still thickly covered with cedars. Probably the lack of cedars to stop the salt spray was the most important factor in causing this barrenness. For that purpose the cedar is well adapted, because its dense foliage is not very sensitive to the poison- ous action of the salt spray and therefore it makes good windbreaks there. In this respect it is much like our red cedar and pitch-pine, which ai'e often found on small islands and very near the shores. Indeed, many of the smaller Bermuda islets, of which there are more than a hundred, when covered with cedars closely resemble the small wooded islands along the shores of Long Island Sound, as seen in passing. Some of the early settlers mentioned that ships could lie in Castle Harbor moored to the cedar trees on the islands. Governor Roger Wood, in a letter written in 1633, speaks of send- ing cedar planks as presents to his friends in England, and mentions that some were 30 and 32 inches wide and 12 to 13 feet long. They were sawed out by hand. No cedar trees now existing there could furnish planks approaching such sizes. At that period the cedar wood was highly valued in England for choice furniture, on account of its fragrance, hardness, and rich colors, for mahogany was not yet in use. Legal restrictions were very early imposed (before 1022) against the reckless cutting of the cedars and palmettoes, on the ground that even at that time the land was becoming unproductive, for lack of the shelter given by the trees against the high winds. The poisonous quality of the salt spray and sea-foam that is often driven by the winds far inland over the hillsides, has gi*eat effect in keeping more luxuriant vegetation in check, for it kills the foliage of most plants on which it lodges, unless at once washed off by rain. As the steamer proceeds northwestward towards Hamilton, the hillsides and lowlands become more and more covered with small 4-22 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. forests of dark cedar, with scattered palmettoes intermixed, and with tracts of cultivated land. Many white stone residences can be seen, often partially hidden by the dark cedars, but made conspicuous not only by the natural whiteness of the native limestone, of which they are nearly always built, but also by frequent coatings of whitewash. The roofs are also generally covered with large, thin, overlapping slabs of limestone, coated with cement, so as to shed the rain-water, which is the sole reliance for domestic purposes. All the houses have large water-cisterns. Springs, and streams' of fresh water, do not exist there, nor real wells, though in some low places shallow pools or pits are often exca- vated in which rain water collects, suitable for cattle, and sometimes for domestic uses, though it generally rests on an understratum of Figure 3. — Eoadside at Fairy Lands near Hamilton, in March, 1901 ; young Cocoanut Palms and Hibiscus Hedge. sea-water, a foot or two below, and can be used only when the tide is but partly out, and even then it is slightly brackish in most cases. The water in such "wells" rises and falls with the tide, and if the wells be dug at all below the sea-level, salt water is always reached. Hamilton, the capital, is a small but interesting town, situated on a high slope facing the harbor. It contains some fine residences and public buildings, and many beautiful gardens tilled with tropical trees, shrubs, and flowers, in great variety. The public garden is A. JE. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 423 very attractive and there are many fine shade trees. Two large modern hotels and several smaller ones, with various hoarding houses, accommodate the numerous visitors who remain in Hamilton. There is here a street, Cedar Avenue, with a fine row of the native cedars on each side. The grounds at Mt. Langton, the residence of the governor, are very beautiful and contain many rare ti*ees and flowers. In the immediate vicinity of Hamilton there are many interesting places to visit, including numerous fine private residences and beau- tiful gardens and parks. Prospect Hill, the headcpiarters of the military organization of the islands, is not far away to the eastward. Spanish Point, Clarence Cove, and Fairy Lands are noted places, a short distance northward. Figure 4. — The native Palmetto. The native Palmetto is still common, both wild and in cultivation, but is not nearly so abundant as it was originally, nor so large. This tree is peculiar to the Bermudas, though it is very similar to our southern Palmetto in appearance, but it bears sweet, edible berries in large clusters. (See Part HI, ch. SO, and figures 30, 40.) In favor- able places, in rich, moist soil it grows forty to fifty feet high, but it is more frequently only from ten to fifteen feet. (Figure 4.) It seems to grow rather slowly. 424 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. The early settlers depended very largely upon this tree for food, drink, and shelter. Its leaves were used for thatching most of the houses for at least 60 years ; its berries were eaten as fruit ; its soft growing top was boiled for a vegetable, like cabbage ; and its juice and pulp were used to make a fermented intoxicating drink called " bibey " or bibie. Several foreign palms, including the Date Palm, Cocoanut Palm, and the Royal Palm, are cultivated for ornament, but seldom ripen their fruit. Five tall, straight Royal Palms, standing in a row by the roadside, near Hamilton, and close to the harbor, west of the town, are famous for their graceful forms. (Figure 5, and plate lxvi, ' *ifcr r A- £LHH Figure 5. — The Eoyal Palms near Hamilton. fig. 2.) The Pride-of-India is one of the most common shade trees. It puts out a profusion of clusters of pink flowers, like small pea- blossoms, in early spring, before the leaves appear. (Fig. 17.) Both eastward and westward from Hamilton there are three main highways, running lengthwise of the Main Island, which is about 14 miles long, but less than 2 miles wide, in most places. One road is near the middle line of the island ; another, which runs along near the northern shore, is called the north road ; one, which runs near the south side, is called the south road. These highways generally have very excellent road-beds, with easy grades and a hard, dry sur- face, composed of the native crushed, soft limestone, which is well A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 425 adapted to the making of roads. It is so porous that the heaviest rains very quickly soak into it, and it is seldom dusty. But at the time of my last visit, April, 190], these roads were considerably out of repair, especially the south road, owing to some very severe storms during the preceding winter. A drive along either of the three principal roads, on the Main Island, eastward or westward, will at once relieve the visitor of all his impressions of barrenness, derived from the appearance as seen from the steamer, for cultivated land and luxuriant vegetation are seen on all sides. Great numbers and many varieties of foreign tropical trees, shrubs, and flowering plants are abundant along the roadsides and in the gardens. Wherever there is sufficient soil, and Figure 6. — Banana Patch ; a Pawpaw with fruit is near the right side. especially in the valleys or "sinks," it is highly cultivated. The principal crops are Bermuda onions, early potatoes, and Bermuda lilies, but patches of sweet potatoes, bananas, and various garden vegetables are common. Many unusual fruit trees may also be seen, such as the Orange, Avocado Pear, and most curious of all, the Paw- paw, with its columnar trunk, surmounted by a terminal cluster of large leaves, and sometimes with a cluster of large fruits just below them. It is remarkable for containing a vegetable digestive ferment called papain, capable of digesting meat, etc. (Fig- 6.) 426 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. The white Japan or Easter Lily was very extensively cultivated here, a few years ago, for the sake of the bulbs, which were shipped to New York for forcing. It was then not uncommon to see beauti- ful fields of five to ten acres of fine plants, which were in full bloom in April and May. Sometimes over 100 flowers were formerly pro- duced on one stem. But within a few years the bulbs have been attacked by a fungous disease, which turns the leaves yellow, and dwarfs and spoils the plants, so that the cultivation of this lily for commercial purposes has now been largely abandoned, though some pretty good fields were still to be seen west of Hamilton in 1901. It is to be hoped that some effectual remedy for this disease ma} r yet be found. Roses of many varieties, and various other flowers, are abundant, and bloom nearly all winter. In many places throughout the islands, tall hedges of Oleanders, both red and white, border the roads on both sides for long distances, and when in flower, in the spring and early summer, they are very beautiful and fragrant. There is an excellent road for driving, or cycling, running through the central part of the Main Island and Somerset Island, and from this a short cross road leads to the famous Gibb's Hill Lighthouse, from which a very extensive bird's-eye view of the whole group of islands can be obtained. (Plate lxvi, tig. 1.) That portion of the Main Island that lies west of Hamilton con- tains, apparently, the most fertile and productive lands on the islands, and owing to the considerable breadth of land in most places and its sheltered position, by which it is partly protected from the cold winds, the climate seems to be warmer here than on the eastern and more exposed parts of the islands. This may also be due largely to the greater number of cedars and other trees left growing as wind- breaks. Owing to these several causes the vegetation in this region is particularly luxuriant and pleasing, especially in Paget and War- wick parishes.* Somerset Island is also fertile and well cultivated. The best lily fields were seen here in 1901. * There are many places in these western parts of the islands to which some of Thomas Moore's graceful poetical descriptions would now apply, even better than to St. George's, where they were written : — " Could you but view the scenery fair, That now beneath my window lies, You'd think, that nature lavished there Her purest wave, her softest skies. To make a heaven for love to sigh in, For bards to live and saints to die in." A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 427 In several places there are thick clusters of tall, graceful bamboos, which sometimes overarch the roads. One of the finest of these groups is situated close by the house occupied by the Empress Eugenie, while she was living here several years ago. This is on a cross road a short distance west of Hamilton. (See plate lxvii.) Near Elbow Bay, on the south shore, there are extensive modern sand-dunes, only very recently stopped in their destructive advance over the fertile soil, which they had kept up for more than a century. These are of special interest to many persons, but they are still very barren, and are only occupied by sage-bush and other sand-loving plants. In their progress they buried groves of cedars and one dwell- ing house. (See under Geology.) Hungry Bay, also on the south shore, with its dense mangrove swamp, is a weird and solitary place, but very interesting to the naturalist. Figure 7. — Cathedral Rocks on Somerset Island. This appears to be the ruins of an ancient cavern, partly broken down and dissected by the sea; the roof has partly fallen dowu. The columns are hardened by infiltration of calcite and roughly pitted. Elies Harbor, or Bay, on the west side of Somerset Island, is a beautiful body of clear, brightly tinted water, with a white sand bottom. Formerly it was a port of some importance. On_ the point of land separating Elies Bay from " The Scaur," which is a smaller and shallower bay to the south, are situated the 428 A. JE. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. remarkable "Cathedral Rocks" or "Old Church Rocks," which have been carved and worn by the sea into the forms of curious columns and arches, resembling some ancient ruined temple. But the columns are not so high as they seem to be in the photographs. (See fig. 7, and plates lxxxviii, Ixxxix, and Geology.) Owing to abundant moisture in the atmosphere, and frequent clouds, the sunsets are often exceedingly brilliant, and the sunset colors of the skv, reflected from the bright waves, add greatly to the brilliancy of the color effects. Figure 8.— The Bermuda Cardinal Bird, from life. Another curious phenomenon may often be seen in spring and summer, when the white Tropic-birds can be almost constantly seen in many parts of the islands, flying over the water and uttering their loud cries. Their two long central tail feathers stream grace- fully out behind them as they fly. On bright days the white under surfaces of their wings and bodies appear to have a clear, pale green color, due to the light reflected upward from the white sand of the A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. ii'9 bottom through the green sea-water. These birds nest in holes in the cliffs and are protected by law. They migrate to the south for the winter, and return in March. (See plate lxxii.) Many small birds, which are numerous and tame, may be seen along the roadsides. Although there are only about twelve species of birds native to the islands, or which breed there, the numbers of individuals of several of them are large. The best singers of the native resident species are the Cardinal Bird (fig. 8), the Bluebird and the White-eyed Vireo (Part VI) ; but the Mocking Bird, English Goldfinch, American Goldfinch, the Wheatear, and other foreign birds have recently been introduced and are now naturalized there. (See Part III, ch. 34.) The Catbird is resident and abundant. It is as tame and auda- cious as with us (see Part VI). The English sparrow was introduced some years ago and is very abundant. The Bluebird is a larger and brighter variety than our northern one. (Fig. 9.) The same is true Figure 9. — The Bermuda Bluebird, from life. of the Cardinal Bird, of which the male is redder than the common American variety, and has a brighter red crest. (See Part VI.) The song of the Cardinal Bird is varied and agreeable, and it is said to change according to the season. The little Ground Dove is very tame and is often seen along the roadsides, or feeding in the roads. (Fig. 10.) The American Quail or Bob white is also now common, but the present race was introduced in recent times, about 1859, it 130 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Ida ml*. is said, by Mr. R. Dan-ell, the original ones having been extermi- nated about 1840. Possibly the original ones had been introduced at an earlier period, by the settlers. In the spring and fall a large number of other American birds come to the islands to rest for a ■ ■ - Figure 10. — The Ground Dove, from life. short time during their migrations, and some may remain through the winter. Some of these come regularly, every season ; others only occasionally or accidentally. Among them are various ducks and shore birds, but they are not usually numerous. Going eastward from Hamilton, in pleasant weather, the north road is most delightful, for it affords numerous fine views of the adjacent waters, which here are clear and sparkling, and have most surprising tints of sapphire-blue and bright turquoise-blue, chang- ing in the distance to deep indigo-blue or ultramarine, while in shallow water, nearer the shore, the color is commonly emerald-green or beryl-green, constantly varying in tints according to the nature of the bottom, the state of the sky, and the agitation of the surface On occasions when a strong northerly or easterly wind is blowing, the north road, eastward of Hamilton, is to be avoided, because it is much exposed to the wind, and in many places the salt spray is apt to be blown across it at such times. The two other roads are much more sheltered from the wind, and have special attractions of their own. The hard, smooth road-beds, composed of the crushed porous limestone, are all well adapted to the cyclists, and many of these are constantly met on the roads, and especially on the north road. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 431 A short distance north of Hamilton, on the shore, near the north road, there is a place still called the "Ducking-stool." It is said to have been the site of that ancient and peculiar instrument for the punishment of gossiping or scolding women, who led " scandalous lives." It was also used in England and America, at that time.* Owing to the softness of the limestone, many deep cuts have been made through this stone, which forms all the hills. The rock is divided vertically into blocks by deep, narrow channels, cut by means of heavy steel chisels, about two inches wide, mounted on long handles. These great blocks are then dislodged, and if sound enough are cut up into regular rectangular blocks, suitable for the walls of houses or other masonry, by means of ordinary crosscut wood saws. It is said to saw about as readily as soft wood, when first quarried, but it rapidly hardens at the surface when exposed to the weather for a few months. (Fig. 11.) As a result of this mode of quarrying out a road-cutting, the sides of the cuts are always steep, often nearly perpendicular, and they afford excellent sections for the geologist. Everywhere they show the irregular, abruptly shifting stratification, often with the layers inclined at high angles, characteristic of wind-drifted or sand-dune formations. This plainly proves that all these hills are only consol- idated sand-dunes, made of shell-sand blown from the ancient sea- beaches. Several of the deepest cuts are near Hamilton, which is a hilly region. (Fig. 12,) Various vines and herbaceous plants have taken root in the crevices of the older cuttings and help to conceal their angular and artificial * It seems, from the following record, that a " stool " was not found necessary for administering the punishment in the early years of the settlement. "At the Assizes, 18th June, 1667." " Susana Bayley, wife of John Bayley of Deven : Tribe, presented for that shee the said Susana is a person of scandalous life, and found by her conversation to promote dissention in the neighbourhood. Whereuppon the said Susana was found guilty by a Jury of 12 sworne men, uppon the 27th day of June '67. And was censured by the unanimous Vote of the Court, to be forthwith ducked with three ducks. Which said Censure was accordingly performed from aboard a vessells yards arnie lying at the Bridge, the sayd day." Five ducks were often given to women. How many ducking stools were subsequently erected does not appear, but there is recorded an order of the Council of Sandys Tribe for the erection of a 4 ' duckingstoole " March 25, 1672. It was also ordered that Miles Eivers should either pay for that ducking stool, or else his wife Mary should be ducked " when the stoole is erected." The Sheriff had complained "that she did abuse him with her tongue in ye execution of his office." The records do not show which horn of the dilemma was chosen. 432 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islam Is. appearance. Among these, the native Maiden-hair Fern, peculiar to the Bermudas, is the most delicate and graceful. (Fig. 33.) Several species of Cactus or "prickly pear" (Opuntia) grow commonly on the -walls and rocks by the roadsides. They bear large yellow flowers, in their season, and dark red edible fruits. The singular Life Plant (Bryophyllum) covers the barren places, rocks, and walls along the roads with its large fleshy leaves, and in the spring it sends up tall spikes of pink bell-shaped flowers. This is the same plant that is cultivated with us as a house-plant, partly f Figui'e 11. — Quarrying Limestone with chisels and saws. on account of its singular power of putting forth several complete young plants from the edges of a cut leaf, when laid on tin- Surface of the earth. It is very much at home in Bermuda and spreads rapidly. It serves well to cover unsightly or barren places, for it appears to be able to grow on almost bare rocks. (Plate lxxiv, fig. 2.) The underbrush along the roads is composed largely of the naturalized shrubby Lantanas, which bear a profusion of bright orange or red flowers. It i> here called "Sage Bush," and in some places it has become a troublesome weed, as in many tropical coun- tries, but it is very useful in binding the drifting sands. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 433 Along the north road, in many places where it approaches closely to the shore and is exposed to violent winds and salt spray, tall hedges of Tamarisk, called "Spruce" by the Bermndians, have been planted. This shrub grows here to large size. Many of the older ones, having been many times broken and bent by the storms, have acquired a weather-beaten and picturesque appearance. Its delicate, heath-like foliage stands the poisonous action of salt-water spray very well. In May and June it puts out large clusters of small, pink, bell-shaped flowers, much like those of a heath. It is a native of southern Europe. Figure 12. — Road Cutting near Hamilton. In other places can be seen hedges of Century-plants, or Agave, of several kinds. Some of these flower fi*eely here in early spring, sending up tall branching stalks, sometimes 10 to 15 feet high, covered with a profusion of yellow flowers. In many places there are hedges of the scarlet-flowered Hibiscus, which is very showy when in flower. Hedges of the Pomegranate; Spanish Bayonets {Yucca)', Cycads; Pepper-bushes; Snuff -bushes ; Galba, with its glossy leaves, and other unusual hedge-plants form hedges in certain places. Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XI. 28 April, 1902. 434 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. Traveling eastward by the north road, one passes through Flatts Village, where the road crosses the inlet to Harrington Sound. This sound is a considerable body of sea-water, completely land-locked, except for this small channel, but the sound itself can best be seen from the middle and south roads. From the bridge across the shallow but rapid tidal stream, one can see, beneath the clear water, a great variety of living sea-weeds, sponges, and other organisms, of various bright colors. Among these the most conspicuous are large masses of a bright red, orange, or scarlet sponge, which grows in many different shapes, and varies much in color. Several fine residences and beautiful grounds are situated in the village and near it. Many visitors, including several scientific parties, have made it their headquarters.* There are here, and near- by, several good boarding houses, but no large hotel. In the interesting grounds at " Wistowe," the residence of the late Hon. C. M. Allen, formerly United States Consul, there is a stone basin for fishes. It is fed by a tidal current of water flowing through a trench cut from the inlet to Harrington Sound. A fine collection of bright-colored fishes can usually be seen here. Among those noticed in 1901 were some large green and yellow Angel- fishes ; the brilliant Doncella ; a large Blue Parrot-fish ; the Blue Oldwife or " Turbot," and others of interest. By the roadside, at this village, there is a very large Mahogany tree, which is the only large one on the islands. Not far away there is also a very large India-rubber tree, and in several of the grounds are numerous good specimens of Palms and the native Palmetto. with the Pawpaw and many other interesting trees and shrubs. The mouth of the inlet here was at one time, many years ago, a harbor of some importance, with docks and warehouses, but it is now so silted up that it is only deep enough for boats. Indeed, it has always been liable to become obstructed by sand bars, on account of its strong tidal currents and the bottom of shifting sands. * Flatts Village is advantageously situated in many respects for this purpose, as well as for the pleasure seekers. Among other naturalists, Prof. Wm, North Eice and the late Mr. G. Brown Goode, who subsequently was at the head of the U. S. National Museum, and also for a short time was U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, made extensive collections here in 1876-7. Mr. Goode published several papers on the Fishes of Bermuda. Professor Heilprin, of Philadelphia, with one of his parties, also chose this place in 1888. The best localities for obtaining the very singular tish-like creature called the Lancelet or Amphioxus are on the shallow sand-bars of this inlet. A. JE. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 435 As far back as 1629, there is a record of one Thomas Emmet having been paid 50 lbs. of tobacco for digging out the month of the chan- nel. At that time, and long after, tobacco was the regular currency of the colonists. Not far beyond Flatts Village the road passes Shelly Bay, named for Mr. Henry Shelly, one of the party shipwrecked on the islands with Sir George Somers, in 1609, by whom it was discovered. It abounded with fish at that time. It has a broad crescent-shaped beach of white sand, but the bay itself is very shallow and full of rocky reefs. In bright weather its waters are beautifully tinted with emerald green. It has considerable scientific interest, because long after its discovery it became obstructed with sand-dunes which were eventually covered with vegetation. But about 1807, these sand-dunes were rapidly swept away again by the wind and sea, thus quite changing its form and size (see Physiography and plate lxviii). Going farther eastward, the north road passes through Bailey's Bay Village, which has been a favorite place for several scientific parties and many other visitors.* At this place there is a very large and handsome Tamarind tree, about six feet in diameter, by the residence of Doctor T. A. Outer- bridge. In the yard of Mr. J. D. Seon, there is a Cycad of unusu- ally large size, said to be over 60 years old. This village has two small bathing beaches of white shell-sand. Such beaches are but few on the north side of the islands. In the shore cliffs, a little east of Bailey's Bay, there are two grot- toes of considerable size, side by side, which can only be entered at low tide, and by the aid of a boat. Several roads diverge from Bailey's Bay, and connect around Harrington Sound with all the roads to Hamilton. Another goes east to the long causeway and St. George's. Traveling eastward from Hamilton, the middle and south roads unite at the western end of Harrington Sound into a road that skirts its entire southern and eastern shores. This road has many attractive features, but is somewhat hilly. It affords many beautiful views of Harrington Sound, with its islets and headlands. This sound is a fine expanse of pure transparent water, and is as completely land- locked and surrounded by hills as a lake. It has but very little * My party of 1898 had its headquarters here at " Seaward," the home of Mr. J. D. Seon. We found the situation, owing to its central position, a very favor- able one for visiting the islands and reefs of Bailey's Bay, Castle Harbor, and Harrington Sound. 436 A. E. Verrlll — The Bermuda Islands. tide, usually 6 to 8 inches, and contains several small islets, some of which are inhabited ; others are wooded and unoccupied. Trunk Island has a stone residence and pleasant grounds with palmettoes and other shade trees upon it. Its clear waters abound in marine Figure 13. — Harrington Sound and small Islets. life and its cavernous cliffs and shell-sand beaches afford some excel- lent places for zoological collecting, especially since collecting can be done here with a boat when it is too windy to do anything of the kind on the other shores. (Plate lxxi.) Near the western end of this sound, and close by the roadside, is " Devils Hole," which is a natural fish-pond connected by subterra- nean crevices with the sea. It was formed by the falling in of the roof of a cavern. It has been enclosed by a wall and stocked with hundreds of fishes, mostly large "Hamlets" or Hamlet Groupers. With these are some Green Angel-fishes, Oldwives or "Turbots"; and a few other kinds. When we visited the place, it also contained several green Sea-turtles. It is a sort of gigantic natural aquarium, and is well worth a visit. The fishes are fed so often by visitors that even the large Groupers, some of them a yard long, will take bread and other food from one's hands, but caution is necessary lest they take the fingers also. When food is thrown into the water there is a wonderful scene of wild commotion, and a great display of wide-open red mouths. On the south side of the island, not far from here, there is an exten- sive beach of white shell-sand, on which the breakers, in southerly winds, beat with great force. The loose sand from the beach, which A. E. Verrill — TJie Bermuda Islands. 437 has been drifted from the shore by high winds, has formed hills or dunes of white sand that extend a considerable distance from the shore, at Tucker's Town, burying the once fertile soil. This has been going on here for about a hundred and twenty-five years. The loose sand of the dunes has not yet been stayed in its destructive progress by the binding roots of various shrubs and grasses that will grow in such soil, though the area of loose sand has already been much diminished by them. (Plates Ixxv, lxxvi, and see Physiography, ch. 10.) These are now the only important active, or moving, sand-dunes on the islands, though there were other even more extensive ones a few years ago, especially near Elbow Bay, all of which have now been stayed by the vegetation. At the latter place they formerly buried, in their irresistible progress, a dwelling, all except the chim- ney, and also groves of cedars. ,..X- > - • f & &■£ -■ i 3>~B J'' .'• .'«#» -. M- k '-: &*& «*? jmrZ^L, Figure 14. — Lion Sock and Harrington Sound. At a rocky promontory, interrupting the beach, there is a very interesting rock-sculpture, consisting of two large, well formed arches, side by side, and separated by a massive central pillar of limestone. (Plate lxxxvii.) The south road also passes close by " Lion Rock," a curious rock- sculpture, carved by the waves, and so named from its form. (Figure 14.) 438 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. Shark's Hole, nearby, is a large natural archway or tunnel, leading far under the cliff, with water in it deep enough for a large boat to enter for a considerable distance. Corals, sponges, and seaweeds may be seen growing on the bottom in the clear water, and schools of large Sea Law} 7 ers or Gray Snappers and other fishes are often to be seen swimming among the broken rocks in plain view, but these lawyers are too sly and intelligent to be taken with a hook. (Plate lxxiii.) Near Shark's Hole the road passes Paynter's Vale, a very old estate, once highly cultivated, but now much neglected. Many unusual shrubs and trees grow half wild upon it, including wild coffee-trees, citrons, lemons, and many others. In front of the house is the first Fiddle-wood tree planted in Bermuda, and it is said to be the parent of all the trees of that kind on the islands. It was set out about 73 years ago, and is now about 5 feet in diameter. It lost some of its larger branches in the hurricane of September, 1899, but is still a large tree. This species spreads rapidly, both by its seeds and roots, and is now probably the most abundant deciduous tree on the island. Its bright green foliage contrasts finely with the dark green of the cedar. (Plate lxx.) Not far away, the road passes near the Peniston Cave (plate xciii), which has not yet been opened to the public, and is rather difficult to explore. It is, perhaps, the most beautiful cave now known on the islands, on account of the great number of stalactites and the variety of forms that they have taken, and also because of their nearly pure white color. This is due to the fact that in this cave torches and bonfires have not been allowed to coat over the sur- faces with soot, which has been done to a deplorable extent in many of the other caves. This should have been prohibited long ago. (See Geology.) It belongs to Mr. W. S. O. Peniston, the proprietor of the Harring- ton House,* close by. It is to be hoped that he will soon improve the entrance and make it readily accessible to visitors. A short distance farther north the road passes near the famous Walsingham place, which has some interesting historic associations. and it is also an interesting locality for the geologist and naturalist. The picturesque old stone house, not now occupied, is situated * This boarding house was our headquarters in 1901. We found this place an excellent one for our purposes. It is very near Harrington Sound on one side and Castle Harbor on the other. A. JEJ. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 439 close to the shore of Walsingham Bay.* (Fig. 15.) It is consider- ably out of repair and some of the outbuildings are in ruins. It is one of the oldest houses on the islands, for it is said to have been built about 1670-80, but it has been considerably altered and repaired within 50 years. It is pointed out to visitors as the house of the poet, Thomas Moore, who really resided at St. George's for about four months, from January to May, 180-1. He had been appointed sLji ' , ■ l >•>•- ] T« hh I if -—•-v^\ ' •- If**"" -4^jSjj^| • ~"\, •> m Figure 15. — Walsingham ; Mangrove Trees on the left side. to an official position there, which did not prove satisfactory to him, so he delegated his duties to a deputy and returned home, after visiting the United States and Canada. He may have been an occasional or a frequent guest at the Walsingham House, for the * This Bay was so named in 1609, in honor of Mr. Walsingham, coxswain of the " Sea Venture," who discovered it. It is related by Strachy that when the vessel, which the shipwrecked crew had built, finally set sail for Virginia, she got aground on one of the reefs at the entrance of St. George's Harbor, causing great dismay, but Mr. Walsingham soon got her clear of the reef. " When shee strucke upon the Eocke, the Cock-swayne, one Walsingham, beeing in the Boate, with a quicke spirit (when wee were all amazed, and our hearts failed) did give way stoutly, and so by Gods goodnesse hee led it out at three fadome, and ttu^ee fadome and a half water. The wind served us easily all that day and the next (God be ever praysed for it) to the no little joy of us all, we got cleere of the Hands." 440 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. owner, at that time, was very hospitable, but there is no evidence that he ever remained there even over night. The room that is called " Tom Moore's room " was really the dining room, as I was assured by persons who had resided in the house before it was altered.* On this estate, farther back from the shore, in a grassy glade near the caves, is the famous old Calabash tree under which Moore is said to have composed some of his Bermuda poems, and to which he cer- tainly refers in his notes and diary. In his notes to his poems he makes the following allusion to this tree : — " How truly politic it is in a poet to connect his verse with well- known and interesting localities, — to wed his song to scenes already invested with fame, and thus lend it a chance of sharing a charm which encircles them, — I have myself, in more than one instance, very agreeably experienced. Among the memorials of this descrip- tion, which, as I learn with pleasure and pride, still keep me remem- bered in some of those beautiful regions of* the West which I visited, I shall mention but one slight instance, as showing how potently the Genius of the Place may lend to song a life and imperishableness to which, in itself, it boasts no claim or pretension. The following lines in one of my Bermuda poems : ' 'Twas thus by the side of the Calabash tree, With a few who could feel and remember like me ' still live in memory, I am told, on those fairy shores, connecting my name with the noble old tree, which, I believe, still adorns it. One of the few treasures (of any kind) I possess is a goblet formed of one of the fruit-shells of this remarkable tree, which was brought from Bermuda a few years since by Mr. Dudley Costello, and which that gentleman very kindly presented to me."f * An old lady, only recently living in Bermuda, used to say that she could well remember that when she was a young girl, living nearby, she used to see Tom Moore rowing in his skiff, and coming to Walsingham, and that he was a hand- some young fellow with curly, golden hair, "just the color of a sovereign." This agrees well with contemporary descriptions of him. fin his published diary the following occurs: — "20th (March, 1834). A beautiful present from Mr. Costello of a cup formed out of the calabash nut, which he brought some yeai's ago for me from Bermuda. The cup very hand- somely and tastefully mounted, and Bessie all delight with it." The verses referring particularly to the Calabash tree are as follows, in the later editions of his poems : — " 'Twas thus in the shade of the Calabash-tree, With a few who could feel and remember like me, A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 441 Many other interesting trees and shrubs, some of them very rare, and not to be found elsewhere on the islands, are found in the Wal- singham woods, around the caves and among the rugged ledges. This tract, unlike most parts of the islands, appears never to have been entirely cleared of its original natural growth of vegetation, and many foreign species were also early introduced here. About 25 species of native plants are nearly or quite restricted to this dis- trict, including several ferns. The only native Yellow-wood tree now known on the islands stands in this district, although it was common at the time of the first settlements, and yielded a valuable timber. (See Part III, Deforesting, ch. 26, c.) By the side of the house there is a good sized Date Palm. Coffee trees, Olives, Orange trees, and Lemon trees are common, growing wild in the woods. Near one of the roads there is a wonderful wild tangle of the fragrant white Jasmine, which clambers over the ledges and drapes the highest cedars to their very tops. On this estate are several large caverns and grottoes, hung with huge stalactites. (Plates xc-xcii, see Geology.) One of these, which has two entrances, has an earth floor, but the others have the floor covered with a considerable depth of clear sea-water in which the stalactites are beautifully reflected, when illuminated. One of them, near the sea, contains fishes. Near the caves there are some natural fish ponds, due to fallen caverns, and filled with very clear water, in which at the time of our visit there were many beautiful fishes. A much larger and deeper pond, near the house and mostly concealed by trees, contained several large Sea-turtles, apparently living there in great comfort, and with plenty of room for swimming and diving. Those that came well into view were Green turtles. The long causeway leading from the Main Island to St. George's is of considerable interest. From it can be seen excellent views of Castle Harbor with its small outlying islands, — Castle Island, Coopeis Island, Charles Island, etc., in the distance, and the thickly wooded The charm that, to sweeten my goblet, I threw With a sigh to the past and a blessing on yon." ***** " Last night when we came from the Calabash-tree, When my limbs were at rest and my spirit was free, The glow of the grape and the dreams of the day Set the magical springs of my fancy in play, And oh, such a vision as haunted me then I would slumber for ages to witness again.' 7 442 A. E. Verrill — The Hermnda Islands. hills of the Main Island nearer at hand. Castle Harbor is a beauti- ful body of clear water, four to five miles across, containing numer- ous coral reefs, which afford very favorable places for studying the reefs and collecting specimens of many kinds. Living Brain Corals and some other kinds can be seen from the causeway, in shallow water. But the causeway itself has an interesting history from a scientific point of view. It was completed in 1871, at the cost of £28,000. It is about a mile and a half long and was originally almost entirely of stone masonry, with several archways at different points and a swing- bridge of iron, 123 feet long, near the eastern end. During the great West Indian hurricane of September 12, 1899, it was almost entirely demolished during the night. No one, so far as known, saw it go down. It was soon afterwards rebuilt, but much of the new work is of timber. A naturalist would reasonably expect that the timbers, when below half tide, will be eaten up by the Teredos or "Shipworms" in a few years, for they are sufficiently common at the Bermudas. It is said that the great seas and high tide that destroyed this cause- way came in from the southwest, through the rather narrow channel between the islands that guard Castle Harbor on the south side, and passed entirely across this shallow bay before reaching the masonry of the causeway. If so, one can hardly imagine the size and violence of the seas that dashed against the fully exposed cliffs of the south .shore during that fearful night. It is certain that considerable changes were effected there at that time, and much loose material was washed away in many places. Great damage was done, at the same time, to the wharves and buildings at St. George's, and to the causeway and other naval works at Ireland Island. Many large trees were blown down all over the islands, numerous boats were destroyed, and a large part of the build- ings were more or less damaged, many were unroofed, and some blown down. No lives were lost, as there must have been had not the dwellings been built with thick stone walls. No such severe storm had occurred here for just sixty years, but the great hurricane of Sept. 11, is:39, was very similar. The causeway is interrupted, toward the eastern end, by Long Bird Island, which owes its name to the immense number of "Egg- birds" or Terns that bred on it when the Bermudas were first settled. These birds and their eggs and those of the Cahow were among the principal sources of food supply for the earliest settlers, and on one A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 443 occasion, at least, they saved a large number of the colonists from starvation (1615). But the birds were killed and robbed so reck- lessly and cruelly that they were soon exterminated and no relics of them remain now, except in the name of the island. Capt. John Smith, in his General History of Virginia, ed. of 1629, states that the egg-birds and cahows were all gone, even at that time. The sand flats that border this island on both sides are, at low- tide, excellent localities for collecting numerous varieties of marine animals that inhabit such sandy places in shallow water. A few Mangroves and Blackjack trees grow here along the shore, close to the road. (See plate lxxiv, fig. 1.) St. George's is a quaint old town with many very narrow and crooked streets and odd-looking buildings, many of them very old. It is said that the narrowness of the streets (fig. 16) is due to their having been laid out before horses and carts were introduced here. During the first fifty years of the colony, all the highways were required to be only 12 feet wide for the same reason. The old St. George Hotel, facing the square, is said to be one of the oldest buildings on the islands. Its great beams of hewn cedar, some of them about 14 inches square, are still sound, though the building is supposed to be over 200 years old. *h k 'Is ., im rr " *■: 2SBHPe^* f " Jl ^88J ...... '■"• . ■"**] ■ -Jt Figure 16. — Ancient Narrow Street in St. George's. It looks much more like some old town of southern Europe than like anything American. It was the first place settled on the islands, in 1612, and was the capital for about 200 years. It is partly situated along the water front of a commodious harbor and 1 1 1 I /•' Verritl 'l'l<< Bermuda Inland |i:n I I \ en I In Im|m ..I :i i :il In i f - « | • i ... I- \ lull nl. I li.il Overlooks (In 1 1 1 1 1 « i , i I'loin lln lull I 1 1 < n i ;i line \ ii\\ u| the ii l I iiiumI I ii •■ i l.i in I iinl w.idi On Ihiiii:! n| lln' lull i iln;il< l • • ■ . Willi lln Ii:iii, i.| 1 1 1 • I ..lln I inilll.ii\ liilllilill^H. Sc\ii:iI • ii In i I "i I , i mil' ill I In in i.l ;i nl 1. 1 hi 1 1 . 1 . . hi I i in I i< mi :iin| in.u ol hull i.i mi irr in u:ii, n\i iliink iin entrance of the harboi Bui ■ I < 1 1 1 ii.iiii in have ft] .1 been imiii in. ii the town. Si Georgt is rather notorioui for the extensive business in block adc running ili.ii centered there din the lute civil wai in thii country in thii businesi ii was probably no! excelled by an) other I'nil, null \:i :ni l''uil n in': W6FC i.i|H\ Govern or Lefroy, in memory of Sir George Bomers, who died :ii Si. (Jcur^c's, Nm. n, 1610, and whose hearl wai inn nil there, ai in I'eque i There are man> othei places of historical interesl in 6t, George's. lint the "Alley oi Limes," immortalized ii\ Thomas Moore, ■•<> lougei ex istSi The house ol " Nea,"j to whom ins "Odes to Noa" were dedi * lln 1 1 I ii . ii. .' I. . 1 1 i .i folloWl Ami i in hi w iii'ii, .ii ii.'iw n . i in hi in 1 1 ii:i| 1 1 H n in roam I'lii.umii i ii.. lime nix iii'ii allej thai I'M. i to thj home, \\ in 1 1' nl i . « i leu the dance and i in' revel were clow \ini i in- i. ii were beginning to fade In the sun, i have ii'ti thee along, and have told bj the waj \\ ha! iiin hearl -'ill the tilghl had f n burning i" naj • >i i | i in n I. ui i in' |i:i;ii give •■! "i I'll i" those tlmei A ml n lili "■•■! ii ;■ I "i iin In I Imi nl|i'\ nl I inn |"\i:i" w in \ii ii.- iin .1 i, Minim Tucker, who afterwardi married w m 'I'm' I, i' 1 She died In l)i 1 ertibei 181 1 aged 31, and lefl 1 vi ral 1 hlldren I ; 1 in 1 ili • ■ ' in In ui ' 1 il l live in l '■' 1 1. 1 1 H I. 'i Two oi 1 11 'i !' . 1 ;i m It In m iii ■ 1 ■ were ed Ni'n 11 [g Maid 1 1 i'ii ■ in w .1 .iin i'i\ betrothed to Mi Tuolcei til the ti when Moore'n vernoi were written Phis tnighl nleo I" 1 Inferred from tome "I Ihh \ . 1 • 1 ■ . p. . 1 . 1 1 1 \ iin farewell linei " w .-ii pi :i. o to iii\ hearl . though anothei 11 be, \111I health to thai eheek. thouuh ii bloom ""i im me I " A. A'. Verritt The Bermuda Island iding, bat all in rain*. 'J Admiral, irhere Moo ndations remain. re 17.- e P ibli the rig ,v 1901. It if not kno ere Moore bad bis living room-, f. ■ . v in St. f/<-oi ■'_"•'-. noi at Walsingb; The lines of one of bi« poems,* in which b< to the nearb and bar! from bia room, would well have applied to ni plac< St. George'*, bnt not to Walsingham, as also I itement, m a lettei to bus mother, that he could plainly see "six islands" from rindow. He < thai the admiral ha\\ standing on Castle Island were built in the early period, before I r, •_':>, for though in the same places, the older works must have been totally demolished and new ones of larger size built later. In the History of Virginia, etc., by Capt. John Smith (1624), he reproduced a rough map of Bermuda, with the location of all the forts indicated, and with marginal illustrations of the forts and public buildings, including the Devonshire Redoubt and platform, with its seven guns, the King's Castle, and the Southampton Fort opposite. These curious illustrations were undoubtedly made by Kinas Cafiell Southampton rorte Figure 20. — Ancient illustrations (made by Norwood in 1622) of King's Castle ( M ) and Southampton Fort (L); first published in 1624. Reduced by photography. Richard Norwood and furnished to Smith,* either by Mr. Nor- wood or by Governor Butler. Mr. Norwood had just before that time completed an official survey and map of the islands, with its divisions into shares, for the Bermuda Company. He was a very able engineer and surveyor, long resident on the islands, and must have been very familiar with every part of them. So his illustra- tions, though rude and all out of proportion as to the land and water, are probably correct enough to give a good idea of the works, as they * Capt. Smith credits his illustrations to Norwood. A. E. VerrtU — The Bermuda Islands. 459 stood at that time. Moreover his figures agree well with the con- temporary descriptions by Governor Butler, as to the number of guns in each fort and other particulars. Butler himself alludes to such figures, probably the very ones published by Smith. Governor Lefroy, in his edition of Butler's "Historye," has reprinted this illustration. Norwood's original maps of that period are remarkably accurate. I have here reproduced some of the illustrations of. the old forts, taken from Capt. John Smith's History. In the view of King's Castle a vessel is represented as passing through the narrow channel, under Gurnet Head, and Southampton Fort is shown on the other side, as described by Governor Butler, who built it. But no attempt has been made by the artist to show the actual form or height of either island, or the width of. the channel, as compared with the size of the ship and forts, for the channel here is perhaps a quarter of a mile wide. It is, in fact, in these respects intended to be a mere diagram, but it was probably also intended to give a fair idea of the form and character of the forts or platforms themselves, and of the redoubts or magazines, and more especialty the number of mounted guns. Governor Butler states that Southampton Fort was the only one properly planned and laid out for defence, and the illustration cer- tainly shows a style of construction very different from any other, and more like the larger forts of the Old World (fig. i^O). Its ruins can now be seen, having nearly the form here represented. It is enumerated as among the forts in use in 1077, in the statement made by the Company, and it was still garrisoned in 1693. I have found no mention of its having been repaired or rebuilt in later times. Governor Lefroy (about 1870) speaks of it as showing its original form, and in fair preservation, at that time. Scientifically it is, therefore, of much more interest than the works on Castle Island. The northern side of Castle Island was so high that boats could not land there except at the foot of stairs cut out of the solid rocks. These must have been used when the seas were beating on the south side. There was also a well and windlass for hoisting freight from boats on that side, where the cliff overhangs. Two large brick water-cisterns, with their stone catchment platforms, on the slopes of the hills, are still in pretty good condition, and are full of good water, but they are probably not very ancient. (See plate Ixxix, fig. 1, b, c.) 460 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. Early in 1620, Governor Butler built the opposite fort on South- ampton Island, and mounted there five guns, most of which he raised from wrecks. His description of it is as follows : — "The Governour is noe sooner returned out of the maine to St. Georges, butt he setts twenty men of his owne people on worcke at Southampton Forte, the which after six weekes of hard labour is absolutely perfected, and the whole worck shutt in, and ordinance secured, by three smale bullwarcks, two curtaines, and two ravelins; the which not only (being thus putt together) maketh a very fayre shewe out to sea, but is, with all (the naturall site of rock exceed- inglie well concuringe) very strong and defensible ; being (to save the truth) the only true peece of fortification in the whole Hands." Figure 21. — Castle Island; Gurnet Head in profile, with ruins of King's Castle on the top ; Profile, (a) at base of cliff ; (b) Ruins of Southampton Fort. 1901. He also built there a cedar redoubt for a magazine. The main ship-channel lies between this fort and the "King's Castle.'' Three of the guns for this fort he raised from the wreck of the Warwick, "with infinite toyle and much danger." If reconsider the small size of the guns of that period and their short range, whether on land or ships, these works seem to have been very well planned, but their strength was never actuallv tested bv hostile ves- A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 461 sels, though somewhat suspicious vessels were sometimes scared away, just as well as by many modern forts of greater size. (Fig. 21, and plate lxxix, fig. 2.) Additions and repairs were made to King's Castle at various times, and it seems to have been garrisoned almost continuously for over seventy years, though the regular garrison usually consisted of only 12 men. In consequence of the war with Spain, the Company in a letter of March, 1626, ordered Governor Woodhouse to see that the forts, especially King's Castle, were kept in order and well guarded. As a result of this, extensive repairs were made and new works were built at the King's Castle from May to November, 1626. A levy of men from all the tribes was made, each man to give two days labor or furnish a substitute, the men to work in gangs of 15 each. Items charged for the special or skilled labor indicate that consider- able changes were made. There is a charge of 120 pounds of tobacco for 1,000 feet of cedar planks for the platform, etc.; 400 pounds for the foundations; 394 pounds for mounting the ordinance and for the "palisado;" 425 pounds for iron work of the gun carriages, etc. Altogether, 3,925 pounds of tobacco were demanded for this work. There is no special description of the work done, or needed to be done, nor any statement of the number of guns mounted. It seems strange that so many repairs were needed within four years from the time that Governor Butler had left the works in good order and the 16 guns mounted on new cedar carriages. There is no mention of new guns. A little later there were charges of dishonesty and fraud preferred against Capt. Stokes, who was then in command of the fort, and Capt. Felgate, who superintended the work, and they were both discharged from the service, in disgrace, showing that the pub- lic interests wei'e sometimes poorly looked after there, — much as in modern times, and other countries, on a larger scale. In November, 1620, a new fort was ordered to be erected on Pen- iston's Island (now Paget Island), about where Fort Cunningham now stands. For this work every owner or " halver renter of land," and even- servant receiving wages, was required to give 10 days of labor or its equivalent in substitutes. Wages were reckoned at 2| lbs. of tobacco per day, without board, or 2 lbs. "and his victuals." The men were to work in gangs of 40 at a time, in rotation. At that time the land had to be cleared. There is record of a special charge of 120 pounds of tobacco for felling the trees on the site. 462 A. K Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. But I have found no description of the nature or amount of work actually completed there. Among the old records are numerous entries of amounts paid to the garrison and for supplies of various kinds, up to 1090 or later. Southampton Fort was also in use as late as 169-3.* The usual amount of pay was 170 pounds of tobacco annually, for each man of the garrison ; for in those times tobacco was the regular currency of the islands, not only for the payment of wages and salaries, even of the governor, but also in ordinary trade and barter. In 1622 tobacco was valued there at 2 shillings 6 pence per pound, but the people claimed that this was too little. In 1629 there is a record of amounts in tobacco paid for cedar lumber, nails, rosin, tar, etc., for a new water cistern and platform at the King's Castle, as well as for the labor of building it. Repairs were recorded as made at King's Castle and Southampton Fort in 1660, and a new cedar platform was made at King's Castle. It was used as a prison in 1649, and it is recorded that it was made the place from which the pilots should go out to ships in 1656. In June, 16*72, much alarm was felt on account of news of the war between England and Holland. Consequently the forts were repaired, guns were remounted, and a new fort was ordered to be built, at an unfortified place, but the locality 7 is not l-ecorded. Per- haps this was the very old stone redoubt at the entrance of Hungry Bay, now in ruins, but with part of the side walls standing. All the guns were ordered tested with double charges in H>74. The King's Castle was again repaired and the guns were put in order by Governor Coney, in 1684. As the extinct " cahow '' was still abundant on the adjacent islands when the earliest fortifications were built on Castle Island, and as it must, undoubtedly, have furnished part of the rations of the workmen and garrison up to 1616, it was thought possible that by a careful search in the adjacent soil, or in the kitchen-refuse of those ancient works, if any could be found, some of the bones of the cahow might be discovered. Probably most of their rubbish was thrown over the high cliff, directly into the sea. A considerable mass of debris, mixed with "kitchen middens," was, however, overhauled close to the old fort on Gurnet Head, but no cahow hones Ave re found, though there were bones of common birds, fishes, and domestic animals in good preservation, showing that the calcareous soil is suitable for the preservation of the bones. * One of the depositions made in 1693, in regard to buried treasures, was by Capt. Brangnian, commander of Southampton Fort. (See eh. 2f all the limestone rocks, surface water does not collect sufficiently at any place to form streams, springs, nor ponds. Rain-water, collected in cisterns, is the uni- versal water supply,* and owing to the abundant rains, it seldom fails, with ordinary care. The roofs of the houses are mostly covered with slabs of limestone, cemented, and arranged to catch all * There are a few exceptions to this rule, for three or four recent wells, of moderate depth on high land, have proved successful. 468 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. the rain-water. But in many places on sloping hillsides, platforms are built of similar slabs of stone to conduct the rain-water into large cisterns at the base of the slope, as at Castle Island. (See plate lxxix, fig. 1.) 4. — Fallen Caverns and Natural Fish Ponds. In many places small and deep valleys or abrupt depressions occur, which are called "sinks" or "plantation holes." Most of these, if not all, have been caused by the falling in of roofs of caverns, which are of frequent occurrence here. Vegetation is often luxuriant in such places, owing to the rich soil, increased moisture and heat, and the shelter from the high winds. When these sinks are formed by the falling in of caverns that extend below sea-level, they result in the formation of excellent natural fish-ponds, for they have subterranean connections with the sea that serve to renew the water constantly and keep it pure. Many of these exist. The one best known is the " Devils Hole," situated close to the west end of Harrington Sound. This is about 100 feet across, and the water is said to be about 40 feet deep. It is now enclosed and kept stocked with a large number of fishes, mostly Hamlet Groupers, for exhibition purposes. It is a place of much interest to visitors. (See p. 430.) Three ponds of the same kind are situated near the old Walsingham house, close to the shore of Castle Harbor. The largest of these contains several fine sea-turtles. The others contain many bright-colored fishes of various kinds. Another very interesting pool of this kind may be seen close by the road- side on Coney Island, just after crossing the causeway that leads to this island. It is on the right hand side of the road, and only separated from it by a rough board fence. It has perpendicular and overhanging rocky sides, but at the bottom there is a considerable depth of clean, transparent water. In a calm day large numbers of interesting fishes, some of them of large size, can be seen leisurely hunting for food among the masses of fallen rock at the bottom. But they suddenly disappear into the cavernous places at the least alarm. The principal fishes noticed here were the "Sea Lawyers" or Gray Snappers, which took the initiative in all the evolutions, and whose movements all the others followed in case of supposed danger. There were also large blue Parrot-fishes, Pilot-fishes, and several other kinds. They are said to have entered this place through small A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 469 hidden crevices when young, but cannot now escape. It is certainly a very beautiful natural aquarium. 5. — Harbors and Sounds. In many cases the gradual erosion of the sea-cliffs by the waves and the encroachments of the sea, have connected similar sinks and natural fish ponds with the outside waters by means of narrow or wide channels, thus forming partly enclosed harbors, lagoons, or bays, as they are variously called. Every stage in this process can be seen in progress. There is a little landlocked cave on Coney Island, with a shell-sand beach, but connected with the open water only by a narrow channel, between high limestone ledges, barely Avide enough for a row-boat to j>ass through (figure 23). A similar miniature harbor may be seen near the roadside between Bailey Bay and Shelly Bay. It is said to have become connected with the sea in quite recent times. It is easy to see that this same process, when it opens up a larger valley or sink, will give rise to larger lagoons and Figure 23. — Cove at Coney Island, with a narrow entrance. harbors. No doubt Hungry Bay, Harrington Sound, St. George's Harbor, and other harbors have been formed partly in this way, though doubtless in combination with the effects of the great sub- sidence of all the land that took place in a late geological period. (See Geology.) 4V0 A. E. Verrill — The Bernoulli Islands. (i. — Mangrove, Sir am ps. When small bays or lagoons are thus formed by the invasion of the sea, if they should be sheltered from violent waves, mangroves and black-jack trees take root in the sea water itself, as well as along its borders. By means of the peculiar descending shoots or aerial roots of the former and the ascending shoots from the roots of the latter, a dense thicket or mangrove swamp is soon formed, admir- ably adapted to collecting and retaining dead leaves, mud, and sedi- ment of all kinds, thus gradually increasing the area and fertility of the land. (See plates lxviii, fig. 2, and ixxiv, fig. 1, and Native Trees, Part III, ch. 26, e.) Such mangrove swamps, usually of small extent, exist in many places, as at Coney Island, Walsingham, Spanish Point, Tucker's Town, etc. Larger and denser ones may be seen at Hungry Bay, Mangrove Bay, and several other places. V. — Caverns and (h'ottoes. Among the more interesting of the geological phenomena are the numerous caverns, usually hung with numerous huge stalactites, but sometimes with innumerable small and delicate ones ; and in some places decorated with the most delicate fret-work, or with thin, translucent draperies, of snow-white stalactitic material. Some of these caverns are of considerable extent, but the larger ones are generally partly submerged below the level of the sea, so that the floor may be covered with clear sea-water, 10 to 20 feet deep. Sometimes stalagmites can be seen rising up from the bot- tom, beneath the sea water. A large cavern on Tuckers Island,* of this description, had been fitted with pipes for acetylene gas and the proprietor had a boat inside, with which he, like Charon, took his visitors across the dark and mysterious waters. In this cavern the stalactites are of colossal sizes, but they are dark and dull in color, as if finished ages ago, as indeed they doubtless were. On the Walsingham place there are several well known caverns. We succeeded in obtaining photographs of two of these. (See plates xc-xcii.) One of them has two entrances and does not contain water, though it is in a depression, not much above sea-level. It is near Thomas Moore's famous Calabash Tree. The stalactites are of large size, but badly smoked by the torches and bonfires of the innumer- * Since my visit, this island has been converted into a prison-camp for the Boers, and is not at present accessible to the public. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 471 able visitors, during nearly 300 years. Another, not far away, con- tains a deep pool of sea-water, but as there is no boat in it, the visitor can only view, from one side, the long sloping roof, hung with stalactites of various sizes. Many of these have been broken off by the vandals who have visited it, and all are badly smoked. But nevertheless, though its beauty has been so much marred, it is an interesting place to visit. The most beautiful stalactitic forma- tions that we saw were in the Peniston Cave, near the Harrington House, to the west of Walsingham. This cave can only be entered though a small and rather difficult passage, near the top of a rather high hill. It descends with a steep slope for about 80 feet. In the bottom there is a deep pool of clear sea-water. The sloping roof is hung with thousands of beautiful, slender, white stalactites, many of them very small, not much larger than a lead pencil, and still form- ing, for needle-like crystals of limestone can be seen forming in the drop of clear water that is suspended from the tips. This cave also contains elegant drapery-like deposits of white stalactite, in many varieties.* (See plate xciii and Geology.) Many other caves, which are accessible to visitors, are known upon the islands. There is a cave on St. David's Island, near the lighthouse, but I did not visit it. Among the well known caves are Joyce's, Paynter's, Chalk, Church, Cooper's, Hall's, etc. The cave on Somerset Island, known as Basset's, is of great extent, for it is said to have been explored for more than a mile, but it has only a few stalactites. See Geology for additional descriptions. Along the high shore cliffs there are many grottoes and caves that can only be entered from a boat, and sometimes only at low-tide. Two large dome-like grottoes of this kind, accessible only by a boat at low water, are situated close together in the shore-cliff a short distance east of Bailey Bay. One of them is lighted from above by a small chimney-like opening in the roof. They have more or less of the shape of huge Indian lodges or wigwams inside, and might well have 1 been called " wigwam grottoes," if they ever had a name, or needed one. Smaller grottoes in the shore cliff exist at Clarence Cove, and in many other places, and many are entirely submerged, under the * This cave has not yet. been opened to the public, and the walking and climb- ing over the steep, wet slopes, covered with fallen rocks and slippery red clay, render it unsuitable for most visitors, especially ladies, until its exploration shall have been made easier by enlarging the entrance and making steps, where needed. 472 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. coral reefs, and are the abode of innumerable fishes, octopi, and vari- ous other marine creatures. (See plate lxxiii, and Part VI.) The character and mode of formation of these caves and grottoes will be more fully discussed later, under Geology. 8. — Shore Cliffs; Natural Arches ; Pinnacles. Along nearly the whole length of the southern sides, and on parts of the northern shores of the islands, there are broken and very rough cliffs of limestone, often of considerable height, and not infrequently perpendicular or overhanging. The irregular stratification of the limestone, Avith layers of unequal hardness, and sloping in all direc- tions, which is characteristic of all such seolian limestones, causes this rock to be admirably suited for the ocean waves to carve into curious and fantastic forms. Figure 24. — Chasm and Natural Bridge ou Cooper's Island. In some places former headlands have become detached from the shore and worn by the waves into towers, pyramids, pinnacles and other curious forms, which are often very picturesque. The surface of the rock is deeply eroded and honeycombed by the spray, and covered with hard, projecting, sharp points, so that it looks very rough and weather-beaten, and it is certainly very rough to climb over. In most places, where long exposed, it has a dark color. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands,. 473 " Pulpit Rock," on Ireland Island, is a good example of a detached pinnacle rock. (See figure 25.) It also shows well the irregular stratification of the seolian limestone. Some of these pinnacles stand out some distance from the shore, on the flat reefs, showing where an islet, or the shore cliff once stood, long ago. Figure 25. — Pulpit Kock, Ireland Island. The famous North Rocks (figure 30) are pinnacles of this kind, standing on the outer reef, some eight miles from the north side of the islands. They stand on a broad platform of reef rock. They serve as monuments to mark the position of what was once a large and high island. (See Part III, ch. 23, and Geology.) In other cases, owing to the unequal hardness of the rock, and to the frequent existence of masses of unconsolidated sand in the lime- stone, the waves have eaten away these softer parts very rapidly, leaving the harder parts standing. This has sometimes resulted in the formation of natural arches or bridges, of which the double " natural arch " near Tucker's Town is a good example. (See plate lxxxvii.) 9. — Cathedral Hocks. The Cathedral Rocks, or "Old Church Rocks" as they are often called, on the west side of Somerset Island, have been formed in a 474 A. E. Vtrrill — Tin Bermuda Islands. similar way. (See ]>. 427 and plates lxxxviii, lxxxix.) The sea has here washed out vast quantities of soft rock or scarcely consolidated sand, such as occurs in many places along that coast, and has left the harder parts standing as large, roughly fretted and fluted columns, 12 to 15 feet high, which are partly roofed over by the upper and harder layers of limestone. (See under Geolog}'.) These column- like rocks are very curious and picturesque, but are neither so tall nor so massive as they appear to be from the photographs. Similar rocks, but not roofed over, exist at Tobacco Bay, a cove near Fort Catherine, on St. George's Island, and in other localities. (See plates Ixxx, fig. 1, xc, fig. 1, and Part IV, ch. 49, Geology.) 10. — Sand Dunes and Drifting Sands. As the entire mass of the land consists of hardened sand-dunes, we should naturally expect to see the process of forming them still actively going on. But at present this is not the case, except in one well marked district at Tucker's Town, near the southeastern end of the Main Island, and in a few other very local spots. At the time that Matthew Jones wrote, 1872 to 1876, there were extensive moving sands on the south side of the Paget hills, near Elbow Bay. Even as late as the visit of the Challenger (1883) those sands were still moving, and both Moseley and Thomson gave very interesting accounts of them. At that time there was to be seen the chimney of a small stone house projecting above one of the sand-dunes, all of the rest of the house having been buried in the sand.* Partially buried trees were then visible, with their dead branches projecting out of the sand. But within a few years these drifting sands at Elbow Bay have become practically quiescent and fixed. Matthew Jones, in 1876, gave the following detailed account of these sand-dunes, which is of interest as showing the contrast with the present stationary condition. " On arriving at the northeast corner of the sand-hills, the encroachment of the drifting sand will at once be perceived ; as the mass, some ten feet in depth, is now gradually covering a small garden. According to the observations made \>y persons residing close to, this overwheming body has advanced over the cultivated land about eighty yards, during the last twenty -five years. At the northeast corner of the hills, will be seen among some oleander trees near the top, the chimne} r of a cottage which formerly stood there, * Another house is said to have been buried at Tucker's Town, but the chimney- is said to have been dug out, for the sake of the bricks and stone. A. E. Verrill — The ^Bermuda Islands. 475 inhabited by a coloured family. It is now wholly buried in the drifting- sand, save the chimney ; which alone rises above the mass to show the position of the structure." " With the exception of a few irregular patches here and there, and the long reach of white sand gradually encroaching on the culti- vated ground at the northeast corner, the whole slope, which some twenty years ago was almost wholly clear drift sand, with a few patches of bent-grass in scattered spots upon it, is now clothed with wild plants and shrubs, as well as young cedars which will no doubt in a few years attain goodly dimensions, and with the aid of the universal underwood of sage bush put an end to the further encroachments of the sand drift. If people, however, are allowed to cut down cedars, and destroy the vegetation as the}' - have formerly done, the same devastation will commence again, and repeat the calamity which has visited this neighborhood." " On the western side of the sand hills, there is now a plateau of about half an acre, or perhaps more, of hardened drift sand, forming gradually into rock. On its face are cracks filling with drift sand ; showing that the sun doubtless affects this hardened surface. Ele- vated stumps of a foot or so in height, rise amid this plateau; having each a hole or depression at the centre. These denote the sites in which cedar trees formerly grew. At the east end of the hills may be seen the gradual deca}^ of cedar stumps, exhibiting more clearly the several stages of change ; which are the more worthy of study in consequence of the light they throw upon the many curious chimney-pot looking structures* everywhere to be met with on the Bermuda shores." In 1897, Stevenson observed that the sand had advanced but little in the previous 20 years, and that the chimney had been buried only 18 inches deeper than when figured by Thomson, over 20 years before. The loose sand in this district has drifted to the height of at least 150 feet, in recent times, and to a third of a mile or more inland. In 1901, the drifting of the sand had practically ceased and the sand hills were fast becoming covered with vegetation. The fixing of the sand has been brought about mainly by the encroachment of sand-loving vines, shrubs, and grasses. Many of these are of foreign origin and have only been introduced in modern times, and in some cases not originally for this purpose, as * These are the structures that have been considered casts of the trunks and bases of palmetto trees. (See Geology and plates Ixxxiv-vi.) 476 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. in the case of Lantana, which was first planted as a fuel supply. Among the plants that have been efficient in stopping the sand are the sage-bushes [Lantana) ; the "black berry" {Scmvohi label/"); the sea-side morning glory ( Ipomaza pes-caproe) ; the bay lavender (Tournefortia), and other herbaceous plants; and also several grasses, of which Cenchrus tribuloides is probably the most impor- tant. In some places, a little away from the seashore, the Lantana* completely cover the sand-hills and are very effectual in stopping their drifting. In other sections, even close to the shore, the Scwvola has thickly covered the newer sand-hills with its rootstalks and prostrate branches, and as its thick leaves, growing in tufts, seem to be almost unaffected by the salt spray, it is a very efficient binder of the sand. (Plate lxxvi.) This has now already abundantly invaded the sand-hills of Tucker's Town, close to the shore, and probably they may also become stationary, by its aid, in a few years, for other plants will soon come in to reinforce this pioneer. This result could easily be hastened by the intelligent planting of suitable plants in the loose sand. On the south shore, at Tucker's Town,* both east and west of the "Natural Arches" for about a mile, there are extensive broad natish beaches of white shell-sand. (See plates lxxv and lxxvi.) The strong southerly and southwesterly winds at times pick up the dry sand from the upper part of the beaches in large quantities and sweep it up the sides and over the tops of the adjacent hills to the height of 60 feet or more, very much as our winter winds will drift dry snow. Fortunately these calcareous sands, if undisturbed for a time, have the property of becoming cemented together into a crust at the surface, in a short time, by the action of the rain-water, which, by virtue of the cai'bonic acid gas that it contains in solution, can dis- solve the limestone particles. Then, by partially evaporating, it can deposit it again as a cement between the grains of sands, thus bind- ing them together more and more firmly. Thus it is only necessary that the vegetation should be able to protect the sand from the action of the ordinary winds, for perhaps a few weeks at a time, when, by this cementing process, the surface may become aide to resist the action of the stronger gales ; still, even after a considerable * Tucker's Town was so named because Governor Daniel Tucker laid out a town hei'e in 1616, with regular streets and house lots in squares, and he also built some small frame houses of cedar. It is recorded that he also planted here sugar canes and hedges of figs and pomegranates, in 1010. The streets and buildings are indicated on Norwood's map of 10'-2». A. E. V err ill — The Bermuda Inlands. 477 crust has been formed, an unusually severe storm may cut into the weaker spots of the hills, where the sand is least consolidated and protected and, by undercutting, in a few hours it may drift away immense quantities of sand, depositing it farther inland. We noticed, in 1901, marked instances of this mode of action on the sides of some <>f the Tucker's Town dunes, where the wind had very recently cut perpendicular sections. Nearly the whole region about Tucker's Town is covered with this more or less loose sand, which extends about tAvo miles along the shoi*e ; in many places it is becoming covered with vegetation, such as the sage-bush and black- berry (IScazvola), etc This district looks as if it had always been a barren, sandy region, but it is probable that in Governor Tucker's time (1616), when he had sugar cane and figs planted here, these sands had not invaded the district, and that the soil was fertile. The Tucker's Town lands are often mentioned by early writers as cultivated. The early settlers made no mention of shifting sands, nor did they complain of the barrenness of the soil in the several places where active sand-dunes have prevailed in modern times.* Lieutenant Nelson, writing in 1837, says that the Tucker's Town sand-dunes were reported to have become active about 60 years previously, or about 1777. Probablv the cutting of the cedars and burninsr of the brush and vines to clear the lands, combined with the disturbance of the surface of the soil to build roads or in cultivating it, usually led to the activity of the de-tructive sands in these later times. Norwood mentioned worthless sandy land as existing on Ireland Island, m his day, but not elsewhere, nor do we find any particular mention of any such drifting sands in the voluminous history of Governor Butier, 1612-24. Lieutenant Nelson, in his account of the geology of the island, 1837-40, described active and extensive sand-dunes as existing at the time of his residence (1827-33), both at Elbow Bay and Tucker's * In the "Orders and Constitutions" of the Bermuda Company, adopted in 1621, there was an allotment of a tract of public land, in these terms : "save that two hundred acres of the Hand called Davies Hand [Davids] shall be annexed to Harrington and Hamilton's Tribe, to make recompense for the alleaged sterility of the Land in that Tribe." (No. 107.) This sterile land could not have been that of the Tucker's Town sand-hills, and the neck of land farther east, because the latter was, at that time, a part of the public land, not a part of either Tribe. It may have been the salt marshes and swamps that were referred to. 478 A. JE. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. Town, and he gave a good history of the beginning of these invasions of sand. After discussing that near Elbow Bay (see under Geology), he gives the following account of this region : — " There is another encroachment at Tucker's Town, said to have taken place about sixty years ago [about 1777] ; and has crossed the neck between Harrington's Sound and the sea ; but beyond this it does not seem inclined to move. The sand has not been stopped at the eastern extremity of the beach, where the bluffs commence, by their very considerable declivity, — though it has been most effectually at the crest of the slope, by a natural fence of sage bush, growing partly in the soil and partly in the sand ; which, as it ascended, seems to have thus rolled on with the seeds of destruction to its progress, in its own bosom. The same operations appear to have occurred throughout the sand tracts at and near Great Turtle Bay." From this description it seems that the vegetation, at this very exposed place, has not been able to much more than hold its ground against the sand, but Nelson's account is too general to permit us to decide whether there has been any marked change in the extent of these dunes during the last 70 years. It would seem that there has not been any radical change in that period, though there may have been long periods of comparative rest. Nelson also gives a more detailed account of the origin and pro- gress of the sand-dunes at Elbow Bay, which I shall discuss under the geology. He states that it began on the land of a Mr. Lightbourne, in consequence of the cutting away the brush and disturbing the surface to build a fort and military road, about 1763. When he studied the dunes (183:3) they were in very active progress and the sands had reached the height of 180 feet, but he observed that they were invariably stopped by a row of cedars, or by thickets of sage bush (Lantana). Nelson also gives an account of an important change in the con- figuration of Shelly Bay, since 1804, due to the cutting of the brush on the sand-hills for fuel, and thus starting the sand to drifting, until the seaside sand-hills were swept away and thus permitted the invasion of the sea. (See plate lxviii, fig. 1.) "In 1810 Shelhy Bay scarcely existed; Avhat is now the mouth, was at that time a row of sand hills, and the road on the north side lay close within. Some free blacks who lived there, being in want of fuel, cut down the plants which kept these sand-hills in a solid state. Being no longer duly opposed, the sea quickly broke through, and now retains possession of the ground at least 100 yards in rear of the A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 479 old road, traces of which are still visible. The Mangrove Swamp between the beach and the present road, was until then a garden." The mangrove swamp referred to no longer exists. It has either filled up or there has been a farther encroachment of the sea, since 1838. (See under Geology.) Without questioning the accuracy of Nelson's statement in regard to this bay, it should be noted that on Norwood's map of 1618-22, Shelly Bay is represented with very nearly its present size and form. This would indicate that the sand-hills described by Nelson had been formed subsequently to Norwood's survey, and that being of loose sand, when they w r ere destroyed, after 1810, the original outline of the bay was simply restored. This bay is a very shallow, open, and exposed cove, facing north, with a wide sand-beach, and such changes would not be unlikely. Probably the far greater activity of the sand-dunes in the time of the Greater Bermuda was due partly to more violent winds and larger areas of sea beaches, but there may have been a total lack of sand-binding vegetation at that time. (See Geology.) The drifting sands have often buried and killed cedars and other trees in modern times, as described by Matthew Jones above. When this occurs the rain-water trickling down the sides of the trunk, and perhaps along the roots, carries with it dissolved lime- stone (calcium bicarbonate), which it deposits in its course, and thus hardens the sand into a crust around the trunks and roots of the trees, so that when the wood decays a hollow mould is left, which may then be filled with loose sand, producing a cast of the trunk or roots of the trees. Such casts, large andsmall, are common in the rocks of the islands at all levels, from below the sea to the highest hilltops, and they can be seen in actual process of formation. Many of them are thought to be the casts of stumps of palmettoes or some other palm tree, now extinct. (See under Geology and plates Ixxxiv-vi.) The drifting sands sometimes blow into the sea and accumulate in such quantities, in sheltered harbors, as to till them up to a great extent. Tucker's Town harbor, originally called Stokes' Bay, which is now very shallow, Avith extensive sand-flats, bare at low tide, is said to have been deep enough, at first, to admit merchant ships of moderate size. Its appearance indicates that it is still filling up, for the upper part of the beach merges directly into the still active sand-dunes of the shore. Mi\ Nelson, also, says that before his time (1833) the channel at Crow Lane had been very much filled up, but this was probably by silt. 180 A. K. Verritt — Tin Bermuda Islands Figure 26. — Map of the Bermuda Islands and Eetfs. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 481 Explanation of Figun 26. The depths outside the reefs and in the lagoons are in fathoms ; those on the reefs and shallows are in feet. I. I. — Ireland Island and Dry Dock. BZ. — Boaz Island. S. I. — Somerset Island. B. I. — Bermuda or Main Island. B. — Bailey Bay. H. — Hamilton, the capital. H. S. — Harrington Sound. S. B.— Shelly Bay. F. — Flatt's Village and the outlet of Harrington Sound. E. — Elbow Bay, with modern sand dunes. G. H.— Gibb's'llill Light. D.— Devil's Hole. C. — Causeway, destroyed Sept. 12, 1899, by a storm, and rebuilt. C. H. — Castle Harbor. G. I. — St. George's Island and town. G. — St. George's Harbor. S. C. — Main Ship-channel or entrance to Murray Anchorage. D. I. — David's Island and Light. C. I. — Cooper's Island. N. I. — Nonesuch Island. K. I. — Castle Island and ruins of Kino-'s Castle. The principal submerged sinks or drowned lagoons, over 50 feet deep, are shaded with parallel lines, and numbered I— VI. Their probable ancient outlets, called •' cuts," are numbered VII to XV. I. — Murray Anchorage. II.— Blue Cut Sink. III. — Sink noi*th of Ireland Island, or Western Chub Cut sink. IV. — Brackish Pond Sink. V. — Chub Cut or Western Led^e Sink. VI. — Great Sound Sink. VII. — Cut in Long Bar, leading to a large passage 3 miles long and 6 to 7 fathoms deep, running S.E. and N.W. inside Long Bar Reef. VIII. — Hog-fish Cut, 7-10 fathoms deep, leading to Chub Cut Sink, from the southwest. IX. — Chub Cut, 3-8 fathoms deep, leading to Chub Cut Sink, from the north. Trans. Coxx. Acad., Vol. XI. 31 May, 1902. 482 A. E. Verritt — The Bermuda Islands. X. — Western Blue Cut, apparently partly roofed over by tin- reef, leading to Sink III. XL — North Rocks Northeastern Cut, leading toward a small sink 11 fathoms deep, not numbered (North Rocks Sink). XII. and XIII. — Ledge Flat Cuts. 7-0 fathoms deep, connected together inside the outer reefs. XIV. — Mills Breaker Cut. 8-10 fathoms deep, leading towards an irregular sink (not shaded) 9 to 14 fathoms deep, and about 2 miles long. XV. — Main Ship-channel or the Narrows, a narrow, deep cut lead- in £ to Murray Anchorage. Note. — The map is much altered from that of Agassiz by the addition of the three contour lines, at 10, 20, and 100 fathoms depths ; by shading the deeper parts of the larger lagoons, where the depth exceeds 50 feet : and in some other respects. It is based on the Admiralty Chart, reduced by photography. 11. — Anchorages or submerged Lagoons • Bottom Deposits. As stated on a previous page (p. 465), the area covered by the sub- merged reefs and lagoons is more than ten times as great as the dry- land. It has been estimated at from 200 to 230 square miles. But of this whole amount a very considerable part consists of sub- merged lagoons, "sounds," or anchorages, nearly free of reefs over large areas, or often equal in area to Castle Harbor and Harrington Sound. The more important of these are represented by the ruled areas (I to VI) on the map (fig. 26). One of the largest and best known is Murray Anchorage (I), just within the narrows. This is large enough for a large fleet of war vessels, and the bottom, in 7 to 9 fathoms, is of tenacious white mud. The same white shell-mud and shell-sand are found over the bot- toms of all these enclosed lagoons, at depths of 4 to 14 fathoms. In the deeper parts the mud prevails and often becomes very tine and tenacious. It is called chalky mud by the sailors, or simply "chalk." To the eye it appears to be almost entirely composed of a fine powder, but when washed through seives a considerable amount of shell-sand can almost always be separated, together with many small living mollusks, foraminifera, etc., but it is rather barren of life. We dredged up large * CO o o 05 • — i S> 'o GG ol co' 16.710 10.077 0.199 0.105 0.159 0.046 i CO O i li>1* ■ i CO O lodo* 1 cm i—i o CO CO o 1—1 CJD d i — i O CO rj 1— 1 2.386 24.850 21.910 30'880 0.169 0.060 0.676 • T-l CO as o oo o d (3 03 1 m o CO OS co O O ■ i OS O it-C1 CO LO i iOS W ■ CO CO «« • i O t-i ' O CO co t-I 1 loo Id d i—i i CO LO 'CO l ' CO CO i ■* ■ oo o ■ o ■ loo Id I lO £- as i—i o i—i co' 6 o CD (3 1— 1 . i-H i iOIOO ' O O t- i ' CM i i i CO ' ' LO LO 00 ■ GO -* O ' ■ -* • ■ i-vj* ■ iiOi— ICO ' lO r- 1 O i i J> i ' Id 1 1 d co t-' 1 ->*" d d 1 Id 1 1 1— 1 ■**< 1—1 lO ■«* as o' d as > — i fit |— 1 o CD 1— : r™ •> ! > 13.280 3.724 0.018 0.173 0*149 0.047 i i CO CO ■ , e o ■ i . CO 03 ■ i ■ • h i . i C* ■+= . 00 LO o CM o i Ph «< LO cm' ■ as ■ LO lie ' o -* o ! co'doo i CM -# •as ■ CM , CO ' LO ■ LO I'd i CO ■ as =4-1 c GO a od t-h O CM co lo co ■*' cm ed i i- CO , LO CO ■ CO i o o o o w H w g '3 c o'| co 1— 1 od i — i 4.700 51.400 .CO . LO i £- Id ■ t- ■ -«* ■O 0.213 0.088 0.070 42.580 0.124 0.011 d S CO 1 1 CO d CO T-l C- 00 -* CO" CM IO ■ CO ' 00 t CO 1 1 T-l • O ■ LO • o 1 d ■ O-* CO CO CO f- O i . Ol CC -tfi CO O t- CM ■ ilCOKCOROC ' 1 o o d oi d d o 1 as a> as' as cm o «s = - iS OS OS ' -w ts ' 03 S3 ' a o3 a) O « .a ti .2 s a g S 3 ;-■ 03 o3 ooo u += 03 a as O Si * "X m a -is 3 a ^j

o3 Si ft as O Si PL, tn as as .S3 o o rd ^3 oo oo CO ft id" d CO o3 15 02 2 ^3 as P-. as PS co GO GO o 03 as N 03 O r— I O 494 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. The numbered samples of soil in the accompanying table came from the following places : The samples of soil forwarded to Mr. Manning for analysis were as follows : — No. 1. — Pure white sand taken from the bottom of the hill on the Pembroke marsh side of Mount Langton. No. 2. — A chalky mud, which occurs in a vein in the same locality. No. 3. — Pure virgin red earth from the layer on the east side of Bishop street, Hamilton, about 60 feet above the sea. No. 4. — Good average agricultural red soil, taken from a field on the Devonshire College ground, which at the time was under tomatoes. No. 5. — Very red soil from Mr. Gibbons' farm near the Causeway, under arrowroot at the time. There can scarcely be a doubt that with so good a soil as a foun- dation, and with so favorable a climate, immense crops could be grown by the modern scientific methods of intensive culture and abundant use of the proper fertilizers, adapted to any required crop. It would seem probable that the culture of a high grade of tobacco, on modern scientific principles, and under cloth frames,* could be made veiy profitable. 18. — The Climate. The tables printed below will give a fairly good idea of the climate, as observed during a series of years. The principal peculi- arities are due to the insular situation and the proximity of the Gulf Stream. Both these factors tend to prevent extremes of temperature and sudden changes. But the temperature and dampness of the air vary greatly according to the direction of the wind, especially in winter. The northerly wdnds are usually cold and chilly, and are often accompanied by cold rains, but at other times by cool and dry weather. But southerly and southwesterly winds from over the Gulf Stream are warm and damp ; thej^ are the prevailing winds in summer, and usually, also, in the winter and spring, but northerly winds are often nearly as frequent in winter. Fogs, however, are of very rare occurrence. The average temperature during the three winter months and March is from 63° to 66° F.; April, about 05°. 5; May, 70°.5; June, * In early times the tobacco crop was often much damaged, or nearly destroyed, by blighting winds, probably due largely to the salt spray in most cases. The use of thin cloth shelters, which has been found so advantageous in this country, especially in Connecticut, would be worth trying in Bermuda. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 495 76°; July, 80°; August, 81°. 1; Sept., 80°; Oct., 73°.7; Nov., 68°. The average for the year is about 70° F., but ranges from 69°. 5 to 70°. 5. But temperatures as low as 50° to 53° are not uncommon in winter ; 42° is rarely reached. It is rarely as high as 87° in summer, but the mean relative humidity, during the summer months, ranges from 80 to 91. a. — Rainfall; Hall; Thunderstorms ; Fogs y Moisture. The amount of rainfall is large, and it seems to be somewhat larger at Hamilton and Ireland Island than at St. George's. According to Lefroy's tables, covering eleven and sixteen years, respectively, it was 54.66 inches at Ireland Island and 48.61 inches at St. George's. The amount near Hamilton in later years usually varied between 58 and 63 inches, but in 1898 was only 48.19, and in 1900 it was 67.05 inches. (See Tables, pp. 500-502.) The rainfall is usually pretty well distributed throughout the year, but is generally greatest in October and November and least in the summer months, when droughts are not uncommon, but seldom very prolonged. Usually more or less rain falls on from one hundred and ninety to two hundred and seven days ; and on at least half of the days of all the months from November to April.* But in many cases the rains are mere showers of very brief duration. Fogs are of rare occurrence, but really dense fogs are scarcely known about the Bermudas, so that vessels rarely if ever get ashore on that account. We observed land fogs in the early morning, several times in March ; sometimes it was somewhat dense, bat it soon passed away. The air is, for the greater part of the time, decidedly moist, as shown by the tables below, and in the summer time it is often nearly saturated with moisture, so that it is very oppressive to many persons. Several rather severe hailstorms have been recorded, but they are not at all common. f Strachy records that in 1609: — "In the begin- ning of December wee had great store of hayle." Lefroy says that on Feb. 20, 1872, " the ground was in some places white with hail, which did not disappear for some hours." * Owing to the amount of rainy weather in the cooler months, and the mois- ture of the air generally, the climate of Bermuda is not well suited for many invalids who go there. For consumptive patients, especially, who usually need a dry climate, the conditions are not favorable. For nervous diseases it seems to be excellent. f According to the New York papers a hailstorm occurred at Bermuda,. April 21, 1902. 496 A. K Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. Thunder showers are very common, and they occur in all months of the year, but they are usually of short duration, though some- times very violent. b. — Winds; Hurricanes; Gales. The climate must be considered as decidedly windy, as the tables will show. Perfectly calm days are of rare occurrence, except during the summer months, when there will sometimes be several perfectly calm days in succession, but a few nearly calm days usually occur in each month. The mean annual velocity is eight to nine miles per hour. Strong gales and severe storms are not uncommon in the cooler months, from November to April, but the very destructive cyclonic hurricanes that have occasionally visited the islands, gen- erally occur in August or September, more rarely in October and November. One of the most violent hurricanes on record occurred in the nisrht, Sept. 12, 1899. This did very great damage to the trees and to property, but no lives were lost. It carried away most of the long stone causeway from the Main Island to St. George's, and greatly damaged the wharves and buildings at St. George's. It also did great damage to the causeway and other works at Ireland Island, and at other places at that end of the islands. (See p. 442.) Another hurricane of nearly the same character, and perhaps of even greater violence, visited the islands just 60 years earlier, on Sept. 11 and 12, 1S39. That storm also did great damage by uproot- ing large numbers of trees and unroofing and blowing down houses. Similar hurricanes are several times recorded in the early settlement of Bermuda. One in Governor Moore's time, 1612, blew down his framed church and did other damage. A severe storm is mentioned in 1615. Captain John Smith stated that in the last of November, 1619, there was a "terrible Hencano " which "blew up great trees by the roots." The magazine ship " Warwick" was wrecked in the harbor,* and the " Garland " was only saved by cutting away her masts. A little later in the same season there was another similar storm which blew down the new lookout tower and blasted the entire crop of corn. * The Rev. Mr. Hughes in 1620 referred to this wreck as follows : " Consider also the goodnes of God in preserving all shippes belonging to these Hands so as none have beene cast away neither going nor coming: true it is that this last yeare 1019 a ship was cast away, not going nor coming, but riding at anker in the harbour." A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 49 7 Aug. 16, 1629, there was so great a storm that the governor and council the next year (1630) ordained a proclamation, setting aside its anniversary as a day of thanksgiving and prayer. In Governor Roger Wood's proclamation, he said that although the Lord had seen fit to destroy their houses and crops, he had spared their lives. In the order of the governor and council it is mentioned that : " Their buildings and croppes in generall were utterly ruinated by the saide guste, without taking away the life of any man, woeman or childe, which ought never to bee forgotten." It was also ordered that the public buildings then blown down should be repaired as soon as possible, namely : — the Courte of Guard ; the Prison ; Warwick Fort ; and Pembroke Fort. The ship " Virginia Merchant " was cast away on the south coast, in a severe storm, March 24, 1661, and 1*70 lives were lost. In October, 1780, there was also one of the severest hurricanes ever recorded there. Houses were blown down and cedars were torn up by the roots. The tide rose to a great height and much damage and loss to shipping occurred. On Monday night and Tuesday morning, Feb. 16 and IT, 1784, according to the Royal Gazette, there was a heavy storm ; trees were torn up ; houses damaged ; boats lost and destroyed. The Assem- bly of the Island, which was to have met at St. George's, could not come out of the country on account of the storm. The Bermuda squalls or gales are sudden and violent tempests, occurring particularly in the winter season. Findlay described these gales as follows : " As the day closes, the whole horizon becomes obscured by dark and heavy clouds, and the thunder and lightning, which precede the first squall, give notice of its approach. After the commencement, the wind, continually shifting, blows in tremendous gusts at inter- vals of every 20 or 30 minutes, a dead calm intervening ; and the sea, rising in confused and breaking waves, renders the situation of a vessel, particularly a small one, very dangerous. The conduct pursued by seamen, and which appears to be the most advisable under such circumstances, is to furl the ' ship's sails, and endeavour to get before the wind ; by which means she may ultimately run clear of these local squalls into a steady breeze." A local tornado is recorded as having occurred at Tucker's Town in 1875. It destroyed a small dwelling house and carried the occu- pants some distance, injuring the owner and killing his wife and children. Storms of this character appear to be rare in Bermuda. Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XI. 32 May, 1902. 498 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. c. — Temperature ; Frost, Ice, and Snoic. Frosts have been recorded only a few times during the whole period of the history of the islands, and in those cases they have been light and probably local. No great damage, even to tender plants, has ever been recorded as caused by frosts. Governor Lefroy cites two authentic cases : Dec. 24, 1840, when ice Avas formed in tubs, in low situations, "to the thickness of a half- crown," and vegetation was considerably damaged, according to some writers; and Feb. 21, 1878, when the thermometer on grass registered 2 8°. 2 F. A few scattering flakes of snow have been seen in a few instances, but so rarely that it is regarded as a remarkable event. On March 1, 1784, at St. George's, according to the Royal Gazette, "A light flight of snow fell here. In a house the thermometer was as low as 48°, out of doors 44°." One instance was in 1811 or 1812; another, March 4, 1874. There is no evidence of any definite change in the climate since the islands were first settled. Jourdan's description, in 1610, would still apply very well : — " In August, September, and untill the end of October, wee had very hot and pleasant weather, onely (as I say) thunder, lightning, and many scattering showei's of Raine (which would passe swiftly over, and yet fall with such force and darknesse for the time as if it would never bee cleere againe) wee wanted not any: and of raine more in Summer then in Winter, and in the beginning of December wee had great store of hayle (the sharpe windes blowing Northerly) but it continued not, and to say truth, it is wintry or summer weather there, according as those North and North-west windes blow. Much taste of this kind of Winter wee had ; for those cold windes would suddenly alter the ayre : but when there was no breath of ■ wind to bring the moyst ayre out of the Seas, from the North and North-west, wee were rather weary of the heate, then pinched with the extreamitie of cold: Yet the three Winter moneths, Decem- ber, January, and February, the winds kept in those cold corners, and indeed then it was heavy and melancholy being there, nor were the winds more rough in March, then in the aforesaid moneths, and yet even then would the Birds breed. I thinke they bredde there most monethes in the yeere, in September, and at Christmasse I saw young Birds,* and in Februarie, at which time the mornings are there (as in May in England) fresh and sharpe." * The "cahows" bred in December and January according to all the early accounts. A. JE. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 499 According to Governor Lefroy the lowest records of temperature are most apt to occur in March. He states that in the years 1872-77, a thermometer on grass registered below 40°, 17 times, viz.: — Dec- ember, twice ; January, four times ; February, three times ; March, eight times. The lowest was 34°, in January, 1874 ; the lowest in March was 35°, in 1877. Table of Mean Monthly Temperatures and Rainfall. The following table is copied from Governor Lefroy's work on the Botany of Bermuda : Conditions of Temperature and Rainfall affecting Vegetation in Bermuda.* January .. February . March April May June July August September October .. November December Temperature Temperature of the air. of the soil: 9 A.M. 3 P.M. at 6 Ins. at 12 Ins. 1 64.0 o 65.5 o 62.0 o 62.5 63.7 65.1 61.1 61.4 63.8 65.5 61.5 61.5 67.4 69.3 64.8 64.9 72.0 73.5 69.9 69.5 76.8 78.8 74.5 73.9 81.3 82.9 78.3 77.9 82.5 84.2 79.1 79.2 80.2 81.9 77.1 76.9 75.5 76.7 73.4 73.7 69.8 71.1 67.2 68.1 65.4 66.4 62.9 63.2 71.9 73.4 69.3 69.4 Mean rainfall. Inches. In. 3.8 4.2 3.6 3.3 4.1 3.3 4.0 3.9 4.8 6.7 5.7 4.0 51.4 99 years was The mean annual temperatures of the air during 71°.9 at 9 a. m., and 73°.4 at 3 p. m. The mean temperature of the soil at the depth of 12 inches was 69. °4, which is probably very close to the true mean annual temper- ature. He gives the average annual rainfall, for the same period, as 51.4 inches. * The mean temperatures are given by observations extending (with some lacunse) from August, 1855, to March, 1877. The temperature of the soil at 6 inches is the mean between observations at 9 a.m. and 5 p.m., apparently the. hours of extreme daily range. The temperature at 12 inches is that at 9 a.m.; the daily range at this depth is under 0°.5, and is about the mean at 9 a.m. 500 A. JE. Terr ill — The Bermuda Islands. CD l> cd 1 — 1 a CO CD Ph CO ft cd O O o , i ,0 eS «s .i-H -u ^ a> a> cd HH a Id 1— 1 s o ft on •1— tn> c3 Oi o 00 l*>1 ■i—i W », as < -4^* ft o ft © Ph E> £ ft o a O W o „ H f— 1 l-H PQ a PS < CO H* K !4 CO O 0) 1-5 KH rrl H a r-t < 'Si) K o i-l s PQ O ^3 t-> Pt T-C o "* i-l o © co t— 1 "# S3 rt o £— a hI . o GQ < W co tH O 03 ** W ni 2 00 H s^ W CB a i-l i — i ni **^> tj 5 0) so rid Cj OS «. o a o - •l-H c8 5» > f. 0) co -2 o O d, — Meteorolog ical Tables. & Jri ft' a Z g~^ . « a s 3 2 ;2 gj g'g ^»g ^5>-eo ® g <=! 2 4i * ,-, CS s h S Jo O 0) - S9pjg JO "O^I 1-HOOOOOOOOOOO i • s niao js J9pun qx HrlOttrlWOrlWOrtOl H O H-3 03 -4-3 • i— 1 Ph cj CD ft Ph •A«p Auv in junouiB jseqSijj ^- '-t 1— ( l-H T— ( T-t -T— 1 T-H qjaj inv.i qoiqAV uo s£vp jo "o^j T-HOCC00500S30000SCC-OS 1 WrriHHiHrHOrlHHrl •junoray £-O5O5eOIOOJlNC» LO co' •«* CO i-< id a • r-l & O ■ -H o o r 3 > ■ej^p pae UOTJ09.IIQ oo»o5oon©«cortOTii OJ OJ it t-H CO CO i-( !5^i!ziP»occcco^cocQa2a2| anoq .i9d A*jpoj -9A sA/ep jsaqSijj O*0iO5COi—«OCO-t4C0Oi^Q0 ■* ^- cj ^ io i-H co o o ^f cs lo O"iC0CX!OJ-t-i-( Hfflnrlrl •anoq jgd S9TIUI UT?9J\[ fflt-OQ005«!0^t-OHCS esowoooie^Miooortt-i Wind. 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March April May June July August September October November December. CO CD o a oo CO o a •IH o? CO ft o CD ft CD > a o ce -H ■5 'rt C5 -H ft a 05 CD >» CD +s 550 a CO cS o 2 £§ a^ S^ | S £ ° ' — ' r! cd "S *t - S HP P4 co CD co a CD CD _• ® W 8 cj tC ft ^5 a at s q •h r— pn a rtrf i*CQ o o i> oo CO t- £> ft 3S i CD CS £ > >> CD CD . ^^ ■ s CD S K- h3^S » ft •« >io ft .■ ■ ft O £_^ C "iH rZ Ti £ S 8 5 ft =« Pt O O CD ■rH ft fH H 2-3 r^= rt CO CD O Ph a £ CD ft 'C o ? T(-i >> o - ■-. S o JE 'cu > > >? rt a a a a a rt rt rt rt CD CD CD CD rt A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 501 - x P P s w co~ O i— i «! t> M CO PQ O < O i— i o c ij o K O H W 03 > 03 cS 03 00 03 > o •§ -fS 03 03 JO i— l a ■H cS 03 3 w -4^> 00 03 o o CO 60 a o t-5 o o CO 00 ft o o c3 S3 'S 03 a I — I cS O a c3 03 6C ft 03 CO A 00 a cS 00 e8 >J h-1 1— t ort F"^. T1 $ a 03 r^S cS & a o o "— Oh CS > u o 03 CO r= e o j£ S u> A © Month. January. February. March. April. May. June. July. August. September October. November. 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CD 'St, l r 1 i i i i i i _c 'S 111 r^a ^^iht 3 ^ aa,a ' ' > '^sSSa os * Jz r?*z a a ^ ST c^ o cd h^ fe S > cS r^ ^h rH n -. O CD o a CD « ® HP DO OS cd a » a: a cd rH to cd a cd cd rx to rfl o CD A OD r. ° » -i ® ® a .PrrH P,a O OJ t-h OS ^h hH4 o os' OS 00 CO CO £- f- c3 09 CD S >i , •** CD "^ fH CS CD CD r-ira ^^ "IfH ^ fH ^O fn O «5 «W a ft - 5 *-4 is ,a * - s . > &">rr> o ft-C "5 "3h2 Si a a a a :5 S re" -; CD CD CD CD A. F. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 503 e. — Drouths and Famines. Throughout the early history of the islands there were frequent seasons of scarcity of food, and sometimes of genuine famine during the winter, but the reasons for this are frequently not given, except as an infliction sent upon them by the Lord for their sins, as stated in the proclamations of the governors. The causes of some of these famines have been mentioned in other chapters. Not infrequently lack of food was due to the destruction of the crops by hurricanes, as in 1629, when the "great guste " of August 16 destroyed all their crops and many of their houses and forts, and was followed in the next winter by a partial famine. (See p. 497.) In 1616 to 1619 great scarcity of food was due to the plague of wood-rats that ate up all their crops, even digging up the seed as soon as planted. (See Part III, ch. 33.) But several seasons of great scarcity have certainly been due to summer drouths, though these are not often very severe. A proclamation for thanksgiving was issued by Governor Sayle, Thursday, Aug. 22, 1662, because it had pleased God "to send us a gratious rain in a plentiful manner, thorow his tender mercies and compassions." He explained that before the rain came, he had been about to appoint a day of fasting and prayer, on account of " a great and terrible drouth upon the land, that all things were even withered and dried upp, soe that the dumb creatures began to languish." In the summer of 1784 there was a severe drouth. It was so severe that according to an item in the Royal Gazette, " there is scarcely any grain left for the horses and cattle." f. — Temperature of the Sea. The average surface temperature of the sea varies in different months, about as follows : January 59°-63°F. February 59-63 March 62-66 April. 66-71 May....- 70-76 June 75-80 July 79°-83°F. August 82-85 September 83-75 October 75-69 November 69-65 December 65-61 19. — Remarkable Instance of the Death of Fishes, etc., due to Cold- ness of the Sea, in 1901, During the months of February and the first part of March, in 1901, the weather at Bermuda was unusually cold, stormy, and wet. The temperature fell, at one time, as low as 45 F. The continued 504 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. low temperature and the cold northwest winds, persisting for many days together, appear to have heen sufficient to cool the sea-water beyond the limit of endurance for many of the tropical fishes found there, so that vast numbers died and were washed ashore, especially during the first week of March, all along the coast, but more abun- dantly around the shores of Hamilton Harbor and the adjacent islands. The stench from their decomposition became so great that the local government was obliged to aid in their removal, early in March, for sanitary reasons. The fishes that died in the largest quantities were two of the com- mon shallow water species, viz : the hamlet grouper and the red squirrel fish. Later in the season these and other fishes that had previously been common were found to be scarce and difficult to obtain. In fact, most of the ordinary market fishes were much scarcer than ever before. Among other interesting fishes seen dead on the shore were the green parrot-fish, large porcupine-fishes, hog fish, Spanish lady-fish, trunk-fish, angel-fish, etc. The following partial list* of species includes those that were particularly noticed among the dead fishes, March 8th to loth : — Squirrel-fish Holocentrus Ascensionis. Hamlet Grouper Epinephelus striatus. Parrot-fish _ Pseudoscarus guacamaia. Porcupine-fish Diodon hystrix. Trunk-fish Lactophrys triqueter. Cow-fish _ LactopJi rys tricorn is. Small Eock-fishes Mycteroperca bonad (young). Spanish Angel-fish; Catalineta ..Holacanthus tricolor. Rainbow Flounder Platophrys lunatus. Guapena; Eibbon-fish Eques lanceolatus. Green Moray ..I/ycodontis funebris. Bermuda Hog-fish Lachnolaimus maximus. Spanish Lady-fish Harpe rufa. In this list, very incomplete as it must be, there are two >>u'cies that had not been previously recorded from Bermuda waters, so * I am indebted to my son, A. Hyatt Verrill, for part of the above list, for he arrived in Bermuda March 7th, when the shores were still covered with the dead fishes, though most of them were then so badly decomposed that they could not be preserved. Had he been on the ground a week earlier, he could have made, without doubt, a very valuable collection of the fishes, including many rai - e species not in the above list. When I arrived at Bermuda. April 12th, the most of the dead fishes had disappeared, though skeletons of some of the more abundant species were common ; but a few dead, or nearly dead, specimens of some species were still often found floating at the surface. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. ' 505 far as I know, viz : the Guapena (JEques lanceolatus), of which a single specimen, with its characteristic color markings still visible, was found dead on the shore near Hamilton ; and the Green Parrot- fish (Pseudoscarus guacamaia), which was found in considerable numbers on the shore of Long Bird Island. The latter was recogniz- able on account of its remarkable turquoise-blue teeth, some of which were preserved by Mr. A. H. Verrill. Those fishes that habitually live in deep water, among the outer reefs, such as the red snapper (JVeomceius aya), large rock-fishes {Mycteroperca bonaci), amber-fishes, etc., appeared not to have been much affected. Many of the corals seemed to have been injured also, and some were killed. In Harrington Sound and Castle Harbor we noticed many recently dead specimens of Porites (P. clavaria and P. astre- oides); some of Ocidina; and the " rose-coral " (ATussa, or Isophyllia, dipsacea), and in Harrington Sound, large numbers of dead speci- mens of the "hat-coral" or "shade-coral" (Agaricia fragilis). It was also remarkable that the very common " rose-coral " (Mussa, or Isophyllia, dipsacea), even when apparently healthy, was very rarely seen expanded, in March and April, 1901. Indeed, I do not think that a single specimen, of the hundreds that were examined during the month of April, was in full expansion. Nor could we induce any of the numerous specimens, brought in for the purpose of study, to expand satisfactorily, although they were treated with the greatest care. This was in very marked contrast with its behavior in the spring of 1898, when nearly all the specimens were found fully expanded and active, and when brought into the laboratory, with no particular care, they would expand fully and freely, for days together, presenting a very beautiful effect, owing to their various bright colors, among which emerald-green tints were conspicuous. Last year the brighter tints were mostly lacking, and gray and lav- ender were the predominating colors, probably on account of their less healthy condition. One very large specimen of the Octopus ( Octopus rugosus) was found dead on the shore, early in March. This species, also, like many others, seemed to be far less common than in 1898. But as a rule, there did not seem to have been any noticeable change in the numbers of most of the Mollusca, Crustacea, annelids, and other invertebrates that live buried in the sand or sheltered in cavities of the reefs. Some of the crabs that live exposed on tin' shores appeared to have been killed in large numbers. The very common •506 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. Cliff-crab (Grapsus grapsus) was found to be much less abundant last spring than it was in 1898, and another species of Cliff-crab, having the same habits (Plagusia depressa), which we found com- mon at Castle Island, Bailey's Bay Island, etc., in 1898, could not be found at all, last year, though we searched for it in the same places. That the unusually low temperature of the water that prevailed in February and the first part of March was the principal cause of the death of the fishes and corals, hardly admits of doubt. Under ordinary conditions many of the tropical species, found at Bermuda, are living in winter nearly at their extreme limit, as to low temperatures, so that even a small falling off from the usual average, for any considerable length of time, would be certain to prove fatal to them. It is certain that a marked decrease below the usual winter temperature took place during a part of February, amounting to about 2° F. below the average for the corresponding periods in most other years, as shown by the meteorological records. But the same decrease in temperature has repeatedly occurred without killing the fishes. Unfortunately, I have not been able to secure careful observations on the temperature of the water, during February and March, 1901, but any marked decrease in the average temperature of the water, for a number of days, would be certain to affect the air in the same way, though to a less extent. I am indebted to Mr. H. E. Williams, Acting Chief of the United States Weather Bureau, for the follow- ing statement of the temperature and rainfall prevailing at Bermuda, during February, 1901 : "The mean temperature at Hamilton, Bermuda, for February, 1901, was 59.5 F. The average temperature for February at Hamilton is 61.5. The rainfall for the same month was 5.56, being 1.16 inch in excess of the normal. For March, 1901, the monthly mean tempera- ture was 62.4 F., or 0.2 above the normal. The rainfall was 8.55 inches, or 2.90 inches above the normal. The month of February was an exceedingly stormy one over almost the entire North Atlantic, there being a succession of gales from the beginning of the month to about the 26th. Many of these disturbances extended as far south- ward as Bermuda. The weather for March was decidedly more tranquil, although a greater amount of rain fell." That the mean temperature of the air was not sufficiently low, during February and the first week of March, to have directly caused the death of the fishes, is evident, because it has often been at least two degrees lower during January and February, in other years, without producing any such effects. A. JEJ. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 507 The most marked and remarkable feature in the meteorology of February was the unusual persistence of the northwest winds. According to the meteorological tables kindly furnished to me by Mr. T. G. Gosling, of Hamilton, northwest winds are recorded forty-two times in February, 1901, as contrasted with nineteen times in 1900. They were continuous for four days, from the 5th to the 9th, and again six days, from the 13th to the 19th. North and north- east winds were also frequent. These northerly winds were usually accompanied by a fall of six to nine degrees in the temperature of the air, as contrasted with southerly and southwesterly winds. That these persistent northerly winds caused currents of cold northern waters to impinge upon the shores of the Bermudas can scarcely be doubted. Moreover they might easily have caused an upward flow of the cold waters that rest against the submerged slopes of the islands at the depths of forty-five to sixty fathoms and more, for the surface currents, set in motion by the long-continued northerly winds, would inevitably also cause an upward flow of the colder waters of the submerged slopes, as I have many years ago proved to be the case on our own coast. By these combined effects, it is easy to understand how the body of shallow warm waters around the Bermudas could quickly have been cooled sufficiently to kill the more sensitive species of tropical fishes. These would naturally be those that habitually live in shallow water and among the sheltered places near the shores, where the water is usually warmest. I was told by elderly and intelligent persons, who have always lived in Bermuda, that no such instance of the death of fishes in large numbers had occurred there within fifty to sixty years, or so far back as they could recollect. Nor can I find any record of any similar event in the early annals of Bermuda. Several instances of the death of vast numbers of fishes on the Gulf Coast of the southern United States, and especially on the west coast of Florida, are on record. The actual causes of the fatal- ities in that region are not fully known. In view of the instance recorded above, and the famous case of the death of the tile-fishes, etc., beneath the inner edge of the Gulf Stream, in 1882, it is not improbable that the Florida cases were also due to periods of unusually low temperature, acting upon tropical fishes that were living at or near their extreme northern ranges. Thus a slight fall in the temperature of the water, below their critical point, might have been sufficient to kill them, as in the case at Bermuda and in that of the tile-fish. 508 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. Comparative Tables of Daily Observations for February and March, 1900 and 1901. I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. T. G. Gosling, of Hamilton, for the following tables, which throw considerable light on the con- dition of the temperature and winds just before and at the time of the mortalit} T of the fishes in 1901, as compared with similar tables in 1900. It will be seen that the averages are decidedly lower in 1901. But evidently the most significant point is the great pre- dominance of Northwest winds in 1901, for there are 42 cases, as against 19 in 1900. Such winds not only cause a fall of temperature in the air, but they bring in currents of cold water from the north- ward, and from deep water, if long continued, as the}' were in Feb- ruary, 1901. The observations were made at 10 a.m.; 12 m. ; and 3 p.m. February, 1900. February, 1901. Air; Wind : Air; Wind ; Day. Temperature. Direction. Temperature. Direction. Hours 10 67 12 67 3 67 10 12 3 10 66 12 66 3 64 10 12 3 1 W. W. W. N.W. N.W. N.W. 2 66 66 66 N.W. N.W. N.W. 3 63 63 63 N.W. N.W. N.W. 4 62 62 62 N.W. S.W. S.W. 5 66 67 67 S.W. S.W. S.W. 64 64 63 N.W. N.W. N.W. 6 67 68 68 N.E. E. E. 60 61 61 N.W. N.W. N.W. 7 67 68 68 N.W. N.W. N.W. 59 59 61 N.W. N. W. N.W. 8 65 66 65 N. N. N. 61 62 62 N.W. N.W. N.W. 9 66 68 68 N. N. N. 63 63 63 N.E. N.E. Calm. 10 66 66 66 N.E. N.E. N.E. 11 63 63 62 N.W. N.W. N.W. 12 68 70 70 N. N. N. 60 60 60 Calm. W. W. 13 68 69 69 E. S.E. S.E. 58 58 57 N. N.W. N.W. 14 68 68 68 S.W. S.W. S.W. 58 58 57 N.W. N.W. X.W. 15 67 67 67 Calm. Calm. S.E. 60 61 62 N.W. N.W. N.W. 16 67 67 68 S. S. S.W. 61 63 64 N.W. N.W. N.W. 17 69 70 72 S.W. S.W. S.W. 18 65 67 68 N.W. N.W. N.W. 19 65 64 63 N.W. N. W. N.W. 66 67 66 N. S. S.W. 20 62 62 61 N.W. N.W. N.W. 65 65 65 N.W. S.W. W. 21 62 64 64 E. E. S.E. 62 62 61 N.W. x.w. W. 22 64 64 64 S. S. S. 63 (14 64 W. w. w. 23 67 67 67 w. w. S.W. 63 65 67 N. X. s. 24 66 66 67 w. w. \v. 25 64 64 64 N.W. N.W. N.W. 26 64 65 65 N.W. N.W. N.W. 65 68 68 S.E. S.E. S.W. 27 66 66 63 N.W. N. N. 66 66 66 S.W. S.W. w. 28 60 65.7 60 66.1 58 66.0 N.E. N.E. N.E. 64 65 64 63. 1 N.W. N.W. N.W. Mean 62.5 63.2 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 509 March, 1900. March, 1901. Air; Wind ; Air ; Wind; Day. Temperature. Direction. Temperature. Direction. Hours 10 61 12 63 3 64 10 12 3 10 61 12 3 10 12 3 1 S.E. S.E. S. 62 62 N. N. N. 2 66 67 67 s.w. W. w. 63 63 63 S.E. S.E. S.E. 3 66 67 67 N.W. N.W. N.W. 4 67 68 68 ! S.E. S.E. S.E. 5 65 66 66 N.E. N.E. N.E. 67 69 69 S.E. S.E. S. 6 64 65 65 N. N. N. 67 68 67 I S.W. S.W. S.W. 7 66 67 67 S. S.W. S.W. 63 63 63 N.E. N. N. 8 67 68 69 w. w. w. 61 61 61 ! N. N. N. 9 66 67 68 S.E. S. s.w. 61 62 65 S.E. S.E. S. 10 67 67 67 S.E. S.E. S.E. 11 65 67 67 S. S. S.W. 12 64 64 64 S. S.W. S.W. 66 68 69 W. w. N.W. 13 58 58 59 N.W. .N.W. N.W. 65 66 68 ! N.W. N.W. W. 14 62 63 64 W. W. W. 65 68 68 S.W. S.W. S.W. 15 64 67 68 S.W. S.W. S.W. 68 69 69 s.w. s.w. S.W. 16 67 68 68 s.w. s.w. s.w. 66 65 64 1 s.w. N.W. W. 17 68 68 68 s.w. s.w. s.w. 18 62 62 62 N.W. N.W. N.W. 19 66 67 67 S.E. S.E. S.E. 63 65 65 N.W. W. N.W. 20 66 67 68 S.E. S.E. S. 65 67 68 N.E. E. S.E. 21 68 69 69 S W. S.W. w. 66 68 69 S.E. S.E. S.E. 22 63 63 63 N.W. N.W. N.W. 66 66 67 S. S. S.W. 23 64 65 65 N. N. N. 64 66 67 N.W. N.W. N.E. 24 64 66 66 S.W. S.W. S.W. 25 65 68 68 Calm. S.W. S.W. 26 67 68 68 S.W. S.W. s.w. 67 68 69 S.W. s.w. S.W. 27 68 68 68 N.W. N.W. N.W. 67 69 70 S.W. s.w. s.w. 28 69 69 69 S.W. W. S.W. 66 67 67 N.W. N.W. N.W. 29 65 65 64 N. N. N. 64 65 64 N.W. N.W. N.W. 30 65 66 66 S.E. S.E. S.E. 63 64 64 N.W. N.W. N.W. 31 67 65.3 69 66.2 69 66.4 S.W. W. W. 64.7 65.8 65.9 Mean Comparative tables showing the number of times that the wind was observed in certain directions, in February and March, 1900 and 1901. Direction of Wind; Number of Times Observed Month. N. N.E. E. S.E. S. February, 1900.... 11 5 6 5 5 February, 1901 5 2 .. 2 2 March, 1900 March, 1901 li 3 3 15 14 6 S.W. W. N.W. Calm 11 8 19 o 7 8 . 42 2 26 12 12 22 4 19 1 510 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 2 . — Ea rthqua Jces. Very few instances of earthquake shocks are on record as noticed in Bermuda, and those few that have been recorded were slight and did no damage. One occurred June 25, 1664 (old style). The following is from the Records of the Port Royal Parish : "upon the 25th day of June Anno 1664 being the Sabbath day, at 9 of the Clock of the forenoon, there was a great and fearfull Earth- quake which did shake churches and Houses, yea and the hearts of men too." Another is recorded Feb. 19, 1801. In February, 1843, there was also a light shock of an earthquake, doing no damage. 21. — Health and Diseases,' Longevity; Historical Epidemics/ Mosquitoes. Aside from the several former invasions of foreign contagious dis- eases and the local epidemics of typhoid fever, the Bermudas have always been unusually healthful, and the native people have been noted for their longevity. The alleged longevity of some of the inhabitants was made a special subject of inquiry by the Royal Soci- ety of London, in the questions addressed to Richard Norwood, in 1664. Perhaps the natural stamina of many of the earliest families who settled there has had much to do with the longevity. Mr. Richard Stafford, in replying to some of these questions, wrote as follows : "As to the Age of our Inhabitants here, some do live to an hundred years and upwards; many live till they are nigh a hundred, but few above : And when they dye, 'tis age and weakness, that is the cause, and not any disease that attends them. The general dis- temper that is yearly amongst us, is a Cold ; and that is most gotten in the hottest weather. The Air here is very sweet and pleasant. Our Diet is but ordinary, and the People generally poor, and I observe, that poor People are most healthful." (Trans. Royal Soc, iii, p. 792, Oct., 1668.) 4 That the climate was very healthful for the English sett Iris, was recognized from the earliest times. Thus the Rev. Mr. Hughes, writing in 1615, sa} r s : "Young children doe thrive and grow up exceeding well : the climate is so temperate and agreeable to our English constitutions." He also mentioned, in 1621, that not one of the original (!0 colo- nists, who went there in 1612, had died of disease, though one had been accidentally killed by the bursting of a cannon. Yet there had A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 511 been, in at least three of those years, great scarcity of food and more or less famine, when large numbers of the most worthless of the vicious people sent out in 1613 had died miserably. (See ch. 23, d.) The ordinary diseases are essentially similar to those in the eastern United States. Malaria is said to be unknown in the Bermudas, and it is not yet known whether the malaria-carrying mosquito {Anopheles) occurs there or not, though certain species of Crdex are sufficiently abundant in summer.* But typhoid fever is not uncommon. Dr. Christopher Harvey, Staff-surgeon of the Royal Navy, writing in 1890 (British Medical Journal for 1890, pt. ii, p. 11*72), says that " the records of the Naval Hospital indisputably prove that remit- tent fever does not occur in the islands," and that of all cases of intermittent fever, not one was contracted on the islands. In former years there have been several very severe epidemics of yellow fever, introduced from the West Indies, and first appearing among the sailors and soldiers. It is probable, therefore, that the small mosquito that is believed to convey the yellow fever microbe is either native of the Bermudas, or else it was introduced there at each time of the epidemics, which could easily have happened. Once there, the abundant open cisterns , of rain water would have afforded it ideal places for breeding and propagating the disease. It would be of great importance to the inhabitants if they could be induced to take intelligent pains to suppress the mosquito nuisance. Much could be done by more thoroughly covering the openings of their cisterns, using wire gauze over the necessary openings ; by introducing gold fishes or other small carnivorous fishes to devour the larva? in cisterns or other bodies of water that cannot be drained off, or that are used for cattle ; and by the use of kerosene or other coal oils on the surface of brackish pools, not used for cattle, where it could do no harm, but would effectually destroy the mosquito larvae, if applied every fortnight, during the mosquito season. Many of the small, stagnant, and brackish pools and bogs should be filled up, for some mosquitoes prefer brackish waters for breeding purposes. In the spring months, when we were there, mosquitoes were not common, but they are said to be very troublesome in summer, which * Mr. F. V. Theobald, in his extensive Monograph of the Culicidae of the World, recently published by the British Museum, records no other genus of mosquitoes from Bermuda, except Culex. He had examined a lot of 59 speci- mens sent by Governor Barker, in 1897 (coll. 21, vol. ii, p. 358). He did not determine the species ; probably the specimens were too poor. 512 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. could hardly be otherwise, while the}'' have so many ideal places to breed in. The open rain-water cisterns alone are sufficient to supply millions. In case of new epidemics of yellow fever or other similar contagious diseases, it would be of paramount importance to reduce the numbers of both mosquitoes and flies to a minimum. An epidemic of yellow fever occurred in 1819, which is, 2>erhaps, the first one that can be identified with certainty. The disease was doubtless brought from the West Indies on a vessel. A terrible epidemic of yellow fever prevailed in 1843. It appeared first among the troops and convicts in the barracks and prisons at Ireland Island, where the conditions were unsanitary, but just how it first arrived there, I have not seen recorded. It soon spread to Hamilton and over the islands generally, and large numbers of per- sons died. Governor Reid was very ill, but recovered. One of the worst epidemics of yellow fever occurred in 1852 and 1853. Although it was most fatal among the sailors, soldiers, and convicts at St. George's and Ireland Island, it spread widely among all classes of people. Two acting governors, Phillpotts and Robe, died of it, within a week. Of the 1600 convicts then employed on the public works, 152 died of the fever. Another severe epidemic, which occurred in 1864, was thought to have been brought in by some of the blockade-running vessels of that period. In the early history of the islands numerous epidemics of conta- gious diseases are referred to very briefly, or incidentally, but usually as brought in by the vessels. We know nothing about some of these except by the references to them in the proclamations for days of fasting and pra} r er to cure them, which are preserved. In those days such diseases were believed to be direct punishments inflicted on the people " by the hand of God," on account of their sins of various kinds. There is mention of but one physician on the islands for many years ; Mr. Walter, a " chirurgeon," was sent out in 1616 ; the second, Wm. Plumsted, is mentioned in 1627. Most of the epidemics that are mentioned, up to 1664, were prob- ably the bubonic plague, though descriptions rarely occur. But as the vessels that brought the infection sailed from London and vari- ous European ports, where the plague then prevailed, this was the disease most likely to have been carried in them.* * At that time "the plague" was very pi-evalent in Europe. In 1609, the second great London plague occurred, when 11,785 persons died in London alone; in 1620, it prevailed especially in Holland and Germany ; in 1625, 35,417 died in London; it continued in England till 1664, and in other parts of Europe much longer. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 513 Capt. John Smith and Governor Butler both state that when a small vessel, the "Garland," of 45 tons, arrived in November, 1619, after a voyage of seventeen weeks, many passengers and sailors had died, and most of those remaining were ill. Most likely this illness was bubonic plague. Governor Butler relates that in August, 1620, the magazine ship " Joseph " arrived with a very large number of sick persons on board; many had died, and the crew were so ill and feeble that they were barely able to bring the vessel into port. Twenty to thirty of the passengers and crew had died and been thrown overboard, and others died after they were landed. No quarantine was practised in those days, and scarcely any precautions were used, though the dis- ease was known to be infectious. Governor Butler considered it the genuine plague. He gave the following account of it: — "Truly ther could be noe other judgement or censure passed upon this infectious disease than that it was the plaine plague, the purple marcks being plentifully discerned upon many of them. And with- out doubt, had it bin almost in any other place, it would have enlarged itself to a dangerous desolation ; but the exceedinge excel- lent salubritie of the ayre surmounted all thes dangers and difficul- ties, and in a f ewe weekes became such a conquerour as this dreadf ull infection wholy ceased, and the former wonted health of the Hands was fully recovered." In this connection he also mentions that "in shypeing times" dis- eases had many times been brought into the islands and " thus recouvered."* He relates that in consequence of his boats being employed in taking the sick ones ashore, some of the crews and others took the disease, and also mentions that many of the laborers sent out by the company were of the lowest classes, ten of the men having been taken from Newgate prison and some of the women from Bridewell, and intimates that the infection was thought to be due to this class of persons. But the wonder is that every vessel was not infected in those pestilent years, for we read of no disinfecting or fumigations. The fact that the houses in Bermuda were, at that time, all made of palmetto leaves, and that the people lived largely in the open air,, and very plainly, will account for the speedy arrest of the disease. In Sept., 1621, the "Joseph" again arrived with many sick * Although a pious man, there is no record that Governor Butler ever issued a proclamation for fasting and prayer against the spread of the infection. He seems to have been in advance of his time in respect to the cause and cure of infectious diseases. Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XI. 33 May, 1902. 514 A. E.Verr'dl — The Bermuda Islands. persons on board, probably with the same disease. Her captain aixl many passengers had died. She encountered a storm close by the islands, so that it was eight days before she entered the harbor. In this same storm a large Spanish vessel was wrecked on the western reef, but no lives were lost, though they had to abandon their ship about ten miles from land, and many of the passengers came ashore on a raft, at Mangrove Bay. This wreck and the recovering of goods and ordnance led to considerable excitement here, and subsequent investigation in London. But the officers and men testified that they were treated with great kindness b} r the governor. It is recorded by Governor Butler, that the magazine ship "James" arrived at the Bermudas the last of October, 1621, also in a very sickly condition. The master had died, as well as some of the passengers* and crew. We can scarcely doubt that this infection was also the bubonic plague. * In this vessel were sent out two Indian maidens, who were sent to Bermuda in order that they might find white husbands, as was officially stated. These maidens were two of the three companions who accompanied Pocahontas to Eng- land in 1616. They were daughters of Indian chiefs. One had died in England, of consumption, in 1620 ; another died on the plague -infected ship in which she sailed for Bermuda. Pocahontas herself had died in England and was buried March 21, 1617, according to the parish register at Gravesend. Governor Butler mentions this event as follows : ' ; Ther wer also two Virginian virgins (one wherof died by the way at sea) shypped by the Virginia Company, and very well supplied by them, who wer by that Company recommended unto the Gouvernour, as being not only one of the Company, but a sworne counsellor in that plantation, that by his care and anthoritie honest English husbands might ther be provided for them (a harder task in this place than they wer aware of), who together, after some staye in the Hands, might be transported home to their sauvage parents in Virginia (who wer ther nolesse than petie kinges), and so be happely a meanes of their conversion." The only remaining Indian maiden, according to Governor Butler, was well married about April, 1622, at Bermuda, as had been recommended by the Gover- nor of the Virginia Company. " She being then married to as fitt and agreeable an husband as the place would afford, and the weddinge feast kept at the towne, in the Governour's newe house, and at his charge." The wedding was celebrated by a great feast, and in order to further increase the friendship between her people, the Indians, and the Virginia settlers, the Governor wrote letters of advice to the Governor of Virginia and "Caused the inayde herself likewise to do as much to her brother, who, by her father's late death, had succeeded in all his royalties and commande." Governor Butler did not mention the name of the maiden, nor that of her husband. Nor does he refer to her subsequent history. This marriage took place during the visit of a vessel that came from Virginia for provisions in March, 1621, and remained five weeks. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 515 In a proclamation for a period of fasting and prayer, to be observed every Sunday during Lent, issued by Governor John Harrison, Jan. 29, 1623, he referred to the threatened war with Spain ; to a recent famine ; and to a pestilence, then prevailing, in which both the late Governor (John Bernard) and his wife had both died and been buried in one day. Governor Bernard had died only six weeks after his arrival in the islands. He stated that the only means of overcoming the disease was by fasting and praj^er, which was the current belief at that time, and for long after, but although this ti'eatment did not prove very effectual, it undoubtedly did much good indirectly, by allaying the fear and calming the minds of the afflicted people. The following proclamation was issued by Governor Frlorentius Seymer (or Seymour) and refers to an epidemic of some importance. It was probably the bubonic plague, which was very prevalent in London, in 1663 and 1664. "By the Governor, A Proclamation, May 7, 1664." " Whereas the afflicting hand of the Almighty hath bin justly, as well as lately, stretched out against us and most of our ffamilies by sickness and distemper of bodie, which is not yet wholie abated. And I, haveing very lately received Christian premonition from our reverend Ministers, for the averting & absolute remoeving (if the Lord shall soe please) thereof. By appointing and setting apart a daie of Humiliation (the sovaraigne remedy for cureing any Epi- demicall sicknes & distemper). These are therefore (in discharge of my dutie, and in psuance of their desires therein) to Will and require all, and all manner of Inhabitants of these Islands, to repayre to the respective Churches whereatt the severall Ministers shall think fitt to appoint ; there to meete uppon Thursday the 12th of this instant Moneth, then and there duly and humblie to attend with them the worke of that day, more especially at the Church and in the tyme of meeting aforesaid. Whereof all manner of persons are hereby in his Maiesties name charged and Comanded to take notice and to yeald a redie observation of the day and duty as aforesaid, (intended & sett apart for the glory of our Maker, and our spirituall and temporall good,) as they will answer the contrary at their perills. And wholly to refrayne from all manner of bodilie labor and superfluous acting, speaking, or doeing that whole day." Given under my hand the 7th of May, 1664 Fflor. Seymer." 516 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. Small pox was often epidemic in the islands, before the introduc- tion of vaccination, and often proved very fatal. In the Royal Gazette for Nov. 27, 1784, (founded Jan. 17, 1784) Dr. Dalzill of Somerset advertises to vaccinate " Whites and Blacks, to pay each $7.00, and find all necessaries." But this was, perhaps, vaccination with small pox virus, not with kine pox. The regular vaccination with kine pox was certainly introduced in 1804 ; but a fatal epidemic of small pox occurred in 1829, when it became so alarming that Governor Popple dispatched two war vessels in quest of vaccine matter. One went to Halifax and one to the Bahamas. In 1818 and 1819, there was a bad epidemic, said to have been of yellow fever, that spread all over the islands. In 1779 and 17s0 there was a fatal epidemic of "jail fever," (probably t\ T phus fever) that originated among the American pris- oners of war, who were crowded into the miserable, foul, and ill-ven- tilated prison, which was described as little better than the " black hole of Calcutta." It seems almost incredible, at this time, that English officers and governors could have been so brutal and desti- tute of the ordinary feelings of humanity as many of those of that comparatively modern period proved themselves to have been.* Probably that brutal " type " is not extinct, either in England or elsewhere, but only held in check by public opinion. But this pes- tilence spread beyond the prisons and over the islands generally, affecting the innocent and guilty alike. It may have been typhoid fever. An epidemic of typhoid fever among the soldiers in 1868 is recorded in the British Medical Journal, p. 474, 1868. Doctor Harvey, in the same work (1890, pt. ii, pp. 1172-3), has shown that the principal endemic fever of the Bermudas, as proved by the records of the post mortem examinations in the Naval Hos- pital, continued since 1811, has been typhoid fever, and that it has prevailed more or less every summer and autumn since 1811, and doubtless at least as far back as 1780. But in former times, and up to 1862, it was generally mistaken for typhus fever or remittent fever. He attributes it to the local unsanitary condition of many of the houses and out-buildings, and the use of water from polluted wells "at the grog shops and other native houses" by the sailors and soldiers, when the cisterns fail in summer. * English historians have found the official rejiorts made at the time, regard- ing the condition of this prison, "too disgusting for publication'." A. JE. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 517 At present, the use of drinking water from wells is prohibited, except after official inspection. But from Avhat is now known of the modes of diffusion of this disease, it is probable that the abun- dant house flies convey it, in many cases, directly from infected excreta to human food and drink, for which the conditions are there generally favorable. He considers tbat the epidemic of a fatal fever in 1849, which affected the natives in large numbers, but not the soldiers, was typhoid fever, the purer water supplied to the soldiers causing their immunity. But previous to tbat, nearly one-half the total deaths in the Naval Hospital, for a series of years, was due to this disease. In recent years, since the nature and sources of the disease have become better known, it has very much decreased. 22.— Principal Productions and Exports, historically treated, a. — Ambergris, Lumber, Fish, etc. The first article of export from the Bermudas was the large mass of ambergris found there by the three pioneers, in 1610. The amount is variously stated from SO to 180 pounds, and its value from $14,000 to $32,000.* Governor Butler put it at nine score pounds, valued at about £5,000 sterling, which was certainly too low for that weight. He intimated that it was not all turned over to the Company, and that the captain of the ship and a Mr. Kendall, an adventurer, both of whom had been engaged with the finders in a conspiracy to retain it all, had each embezzled a portion of it.f There * In the commission given to Governor Moore in 1612, he was instructed to pay the finder of ambergris 13 s 4' 1 per ounce. Governor Butler records the recovery of 28% ounces in his time, for which he paid one-half the value to the finders, at the rate of £3 per troy ounce, their share amounting to £43. 6 3 . 3 d . and his own to £4. 15% according to the rules of the Company. In the " Orders and Constitutions," adopted in 1622, No. 124, one-fifth of any ambergris found was reserved to the Company, the rest to be divided equally between the finder and the owner of the land where found, except 3 3 4 1 per ounce, which the governor was to receive. At this time it was considered worth about £3 sterling per troy ounce, but the quality and prices varied somewhat. According to an attestation of Edward Walker, April, 1626, 19^ ounces of ambergi'is belonging to Capt. Robert Folgate were sold by him for 50 pounds sterling. (See ch. 26, c.) f Capt. John Smith gave its weight as four-score pounds. But probably Governor Butler was a better authority, for Christopher Carter, one of the finders of it, was living at Bermuda, in his time, and probably many others who had seen it were known to him ; the interval was but seven years. 518 A. E. Verritt — The Bermuda Islands. is also a hint about other frauds connected with it, in speaking of Mr. Christopher Carter, the one of the finders who confessed it. (See Part III, ch. 26, c.) But although ambergris was repeatedly found there, it was never again found in large amounts. This first shipment, however, had much to do with the rapid settlement of the islands. Cedar lumber, in various forms, was the next article shipped. An entire cargo was shipped to London in 1616, and from that time on, for more than a hundred years, much of it was constantly exported, though during most of that time its exportation was forbidden, except in the form of chests to hold tobacco, oranges, etc., unless by a special license. The chests were made very large and of thick planks, so that the lumber could be sold in London at a good price, for the cedar wood had then a high value for ornamental furniture. It cost 2 s 6 d to 3 s per foot to saw it into planks by hand in Bermuda, which must have made its price high in London. Had the Company allowed its shipment in logs or squared timber, no doubt the islands would soon have been entirely stripped. (See Part III, ch. 26, b, under Bermuda Cedar.) Yellow-wood timber was also shipped, so long as it lasted, but it was probably nearly extinct as early as 1650. (See Part III, ch. 26.) Cargoes of limestone, to burn for lime, were sometimes shipped to Virginia, in early times, and bricks were received in return. From about 1622, Indian corn, potatoes, beef, pork, honey, wax, and salted fish (mostly groupers) were shipped in considerable quan- tities to the West Indies, and sometimes to the American Colonies. From 1630, oranges and lemons were also shipped to London, Vir- ginia, and New England, more or less. But most of this trade with the other colonies was forbidden by the Company and therefore it was often done secretly. Freedom to trade with other colonies in cattle, hogs, fruit, and other provisions was first allowed by the Company in 1644, probably in consequence of the Dutch war, and the danger of losing their own vessels. But trading in tobacco was again strictly forbidden, under all circumstances. b. — Tobacco; Salt. During the first seventy years of the colon}-, tobacco was the principal commodity exported. At first it Avas very profitable, but its price, which was 2 8 6 d per pound in L 620-25, soon declined to such an extent, about 1627, owing partly to the better Virginia tobacco competing with it, that it was not remunerative, and often A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 519 would not bring enough to pay the freight and duties, which were very high. Freight was sometimes as high as 2 d to 3 d per pound, about 1620-25 ; in 1670, it was, on the magazine ships, three farthings per pound, or if in cedar chests or casks, it was l d per pound, with " the weight of the chests allowed." This was seven or eight times the modern rates by sailing vessels. The Company derived income from the freight ; from a special private impost usually of l d to 2 d per pound; from the profit on household goods and liquors sent out ; from their share of tobacco raised ; from vessels seized and condemned ; and from whale-oil, etc. The tobacco was made a monopoly in 1623, and it could be imported into England only from Bermuda and Virginia, except a definite limited amount from the West Indies. At first the King received 12 d duty per pound ; about 1623 it was reduced to 9 d ; still later, in 1628, to 6 d , and still less subsequently. But the Company, after 1658, imposed an additional duty, for them- selves, of l d to 2 d per pound, in addition to their exorbitant freight charges and large levies made in Bermuda for public expenses. The following extract from a letter sent by Mr. Perient Trott, of London, to his agent in Bermuda, on the tobacco trade, April 15, 1663, shows the condition of the trade at that time: — " Tobacco is a miserable Comodity throut the world, more Burmoo- das in England then will sell this two yeares. I pray take not a roll for me but what is gallant both for cutt & color, as before I writ you, and hope you have don soe, if noe such Tobacco be made take none for mee, let others doe what they will, pray follow my order." The Bermuda Company was a sort of " Syndicate," as it would now be called, and did not allow the Bermudians to trade with any other ships, nor to send their tobacco to England on any other vessels, except their own, unless there should be an overplus. Dur- ing the Dutch war, in 1642-44, they sent out no ship in two years, so that the colonists suffered great losses. These restrictions natur- ally led to much illicit traffic and smuggling, in spite of the severe penalties. In such operations the Bermudians soon became very expert and venturesome. It is recorded that two vessels in November and December, 1669, took about 40,000 pounds of " contraband tobacco" to New England, and numerous other cases are recorded, as well as records of a num- ber of vessels seized and confiscated on account of this traffic. The Bermudians often carried the tobacco far out to sea in small boats and put it aboard of vessels that had cleared. 520 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. As much as 200,000 pounds of tobacco was shipped in some of the earlier years. About 1707, its culture was entirely abandoned. In some of the last years of its culture it sold in London for only about 2 d and 3 d per pound, but this may, perhaps, have been owing to its damaged condition. (See Part III, ch. 23, e, under Tobacco.) In 1(323, it was ordered by the Council that the price of a bushel of salt made in the Somer Islands should not exceed one pound of tobacco.* At about that period salt was mentioned as being made at St. George's and other places, but probably not very largely. It is recorded as made there in 1024 and 1625. It was also made at Crawl Point and other places. But salt was also imported at the same period. Subsequently the Bermudians engaged largely in the manufacture of salt at Turks Island, in the winter, and shipping it to the other colonies. This trade was an important one in the 18th century, for they supplied Virginia, New York, and New England with a large part of their salt, down to the time of the Revolution- ary War and later. During the war this traffic was still kept up secretly to a considerable extent. At that time they had no other means of obtaining necessary provision, etc., except by exchanging salt for them in these colonies. It finally led to disputes with the Bahama government, as to the ownership of the right to make salt there without interference. Eventually the British Government gave the control of Turks Island to the Bahamas, to the great disadvantage of the Bermudians, who had built the works there and enjoyed their rights for a great many years (since 1078) unchallenged, except by foreign enemies.f In the official reply of the Company to the government interroga- tions, in 1679, it was stated that no commodities were shipped to England except tobacco and some timber "than which there is nothing else growing or may be produced for shipping"; and that * Bermuda being a small colony, far away from England, and with no trade or commerce allowed elsewhere, it was easy for the grasping persons to make "a corner" in any useful product. So that the Governors or Council often had to interfere and regulate prices of the food and wages by law, and some- times to seize corn that was hoarded for high prices in times of famine to save the lives of those who had no food. f They were attacked and driven away by the Spaniards in 1710. They in turn soon fitted out a privateer, in Bermuda, and drove out the Spaniards. Other quarrels with the Spanish occurred there in subsequent years. The French, from St. Domingo, captured the island in 176-t and destroyed the buildings and works, and took all the people as prisoners to Cape Francois. But the British Government soon caused the French to return the people to the island and pay damages, for there was no war at that time. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 521 the exports to the " Neighbour-Islands are Beef, Pork, Fish, Wax, Honey, Palmetto-hats, Baskets, and Woodden ware. All about the value of six thousand pounds per annum." They stated that there were about 400 planters; 8,000 men, women, children, and slaves ; about 1,000 white persons able to bear arms. Also that about 50 blacks had been brought in and sold as slaves at about £15 per head during the previous seven years. As to com- merce, the}'' stated that about ten or twelve small vessels came to trade annually from New England, New York, Barbadoes, etc., for provisions, besides eight or ten more touch at the islands ; and there were thirteen or fourteen vessels, of from 20 to 80 tons, belonging to the islands. c. — The Whale Fishery; Sharks Oil. The whale fishery was claimed as a royalty by the Bermuda Company, and the colonists were strictly prohibited from taking whales, except with special commissions, and for the Company. Under these circumstances they were not very ambitious to pursue the fishery, though several unsuccessful attempts were made as early as 161*7 and 1621. The sperm whale, or "trunk whale" as it was then called, Mas found there, but was probably never captured in that century. At least Mr. Richard Stafford, in 1668, said that he had never known of one being killed, though he, himself, had killed many whalebone whales. In a few instances dead sperm % whales had been found stranded on the reefs, and considerable oil obtained from them. One such case is recorded in June, 1676. The so-called " Right Whales " were originally very common in the spring months, breeding in shallow water about the reefs (see ch. 30). But their capture was not systematically undertaken till 1663, when special rules were enacted by the Bermuda Company, and a special stock company was organized for the whale fishery, December, 1663. This effort was not at first a success and resulted in considerable loss to the parties concerned. A writer in the Trans. Royal Society for 1665 (i, p. 11) quotes a correspondent as stating that he had helped to take two old whales and three "cubs" in 1665, and that 16 had been killed in 1666 (ii, p. 132). The largest he claimed was 88 feet long.* In November, 1667, they offered to give those of the natives * From the description that this writer gave it is evident that this was a Hurnp- Back Whale, with very long flippers and a dorsal fin. Such whales are swifter and harder to kill than true Right Whales. Little account was made of the baleen, which was short, but small quantities were shipped to London. Prob- ably a few Biscay Right Whales were sometimes taken. (See ch. 30.) 522 A. E. Verritt — The Bermuda Islands. who would carry on the fishery one-third of the profits. This resulted in the manufacture of considerable oil, but it also gave rise to great dissatisfaction on the part of the Company, who did not think that they received their share. At this period Xorwood stated that they sometimes took two or three whales in a day. In 1671 the whaling company was reorganized, but owing to dis- sensions, the taking of whales was prohibited in 1679. Complaints were frequently made of the illegal taking of whales, but probably no great numbers were ever taken in that way, in early times, for the natives lacked the means of boiling the blubber, except at the established " whale-houses." The total amount of oil shipped in the 17th century is very uncer- tain, for the amount is only mentioned incidentally in recording the cargoes of certain ships. Probably the business was never very extensive, nor very profitable for the investors. The following entries, though doubtless very incomplete, give some idea of the amount of oil shipped : The "Elias" of London, August, 1664, carried away 4-1 hogsheads, or 9 tuns of whale-oil. A ship (Hercules?), August, 1666, took away 117 hogsheads, or 29 tuns of oil. A vessel not named, August, 1667, carried away 4H tuns of whale- oil. The "Elizabeth and Marie," June, 1668, took 13| tuns of oil. After 1700 more or less whaling was carried on, generally in a local way, down to quite recent years, the number of whales con- stantly decreasing. Three whale-houses formerly existed on St. David's Island; one on Smith's Island; one on Paget Island; one at Whale Bay; one at Tucker's Town. Until 1782, licenses were issued by the Governor to those who engaged in the fishery, for which a considerable fee was paid. In 1782, under Governor Brown, the whale fishery was made free to all. Several vessels were built and fitted out for the foreign whale fishery about 1784, by Jennings, Tucker & Co. This business was carried on until interrupted by the war with France in 1793. For the past thirty or forty years very few whales have been taken, though boats are kept in readiness. Sperm Whales are occasionally seen near the islands, but are usually very shy and few are taken. A small one, about 30 feet long, was captured in April, L901. (See Part III, ch. 30.) A. E. Verritt — The Bermuda Islands. 523 Large sharks have occasionally been taken, outside the reefs, for their liver oil, from early times down to the present year. The oil was used for lamp-oil, in early times, but is now highly prized as a lubricant. The shark most commonly taken for their oil is called by the fisherman the "nurse shark," but it is probably not the true northern nurse-shark.* It may be the " Cat-shark " or " Gata," of which small specimens are not uncommon. d. — Silk, Castor Oil, Olive Oil,-etc. In the early history of the Bermudas, many attempts were made to cultivate crops that did not prove successful, for various reasons, but perhaps oftener for the want of a market than for any other cause. Attempts were made very early to raise silk worms, and large numbers of Mulberry trees were planted for this use, about 1630, but the enterprise came to nothing. Governor Reid, about 1839, again tried to introduce silk raising, but without success. Apparently the native laborers are not equal to the constant and faithful care required for this industry. Some silk worms have been raised by individuals in recent years. About 1630, when the price of tobacco had become so low as to be unprofitable, the Company ordered the planting of the Castor-oil plant for its oil, and sent out seed for the purpose. They were planted in 1631-34 in large quantities. That the cultivation of the castor-oil plant was very successful is proved by the following extract fi*om a letter of Governor Roger Wood, to the Company, in 1634 : — " Now for your oyle wee have planted and gathered so much seed as it may be lykened to Josephs provision for corne in Egypt, for wee have no place to lay it in, and now we have it wee know not what to doe with it, and before I will put a finger to a presse to make this oyle for 12d the gallon I protest I will plucke up all my trees and burne them. I like well of yor price proposed to sell a bushell as they be gathered from the Trees, the long stalkes takes off the heape of 12d the bushell, and this is so little that men can not live of lessc; but lett those oyle marchants make that good and I will deliver them 50,000 bushellsof seed from the Inhabitants of these Islands yearely, * During the time when whales were often taken, large sharks would follow the dead whales that were towed ashore, being attracted by the blood, and some- times they damaged the whales considerably. As an offset, the fishermen used to take the denuded carcasses of the whales outside the reefs and use them for baiting the sharks, spearing those that came around the bait. 524 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. for now they will not give a groat a Imshell for them, and I believe their mills will stand still if they continue so, yet Mr. Jenour hath bought 1500 bushells for Mr. Gowes cheap enough for such ones, and [he] is my best chapman, who offers me 2s 6d a bushell for cleare seed and 8d a bushell for seed excellently cleared to the white husk ; but I heard yesterday Mr. Painter sayth such seed will be worth L2d per bushell by his experiment, who made 22 gallons of oyle in one day, and I think will be able to send home a pipe or a butt or 2 hogs- heads to get the tother £40 of the Compa. w'ch he makes account to have, but he is behoulden to your querne to cleane his seeds, for William will not meddle with that busynesse." It does not appear from the records that this crop was ever of commercial importance there. The culture of Olives for the oil Avas many times tried in a small way, and Richard Norwood produced some oil in 1660, and sent it to the Company in London. But the business never succeeded, though large numbers of trees were ordered to be set out. Perhaps the Olive could now be profitably raised for pickling, as in California, if choice varieties should be planted, but it is doubtful if it would make so large returns per acre as the onions. e. — Sugar, Cassava or Tapioca, Wheat, etc. Sugar canes were planted by Somers in 1609, but they were eaten up by the wild hogs. More were planted b} r Governor Tucker, in 1616. After that time various efforts were made to raise canes for sugar, but it never grew very well, having " uncommonly short joints." In spite of the unfavorable results of all the early attempts. the Company in 1620 ordered a quantity of canes to be planted on every share of land, and instructed the Governor to see to it that this should be done, which he did, so far as he was able, for suitable places were found to be far from common. But this attempt had no success. Finally, when a small quantity of sugar began to be made, about 1670-75, the Company forbade the use of cedar wood for fuel to boil the juice, and so its manufacture was abandoned. It is probable that enough sugar for domestic use was never made. It is recorded that Capt. John Hubbard made a box of sugar in 1670 and sent it as a present to the Company, for which they returned their thanks and made him a present of an "Anker of Brandy." But tiny adhered to their prohibition of the use of cedar for fuel, and passed a more stringent law to the same effect, but with A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 525 larger fines, in 1675. The sugar cane is now only occasionally seen in gardens. The cultivation of the Cassava was undertaken about 1619, or earlier, and high hopes were at first entertained of its great useful- ness and profit. Probably the preparation of the cassava required too much trouble and care for the rather indolent natives, for it never became an important crop. It is still cultivated, to some extent, for domestic use on festive occasions, as in making cassava puddings, especially at Christmas time. Cassava roots were amono- the thino-s sent to Virginia bv Governor Butler,, in 1621, but probably they were intended for planting. The Taro or Eddoe (Colocasla esculenta), the " Tous-les-mois " ( Ganna edulis), and the true Yam (Dioseorea lutea) were probably introduced at an early period from the West Indies, perhaps even in 1616. They have been long cultivated locally, for domestic use ; but none of them have been raised in commercial quantities, though the Tous-les-mois is sometimes sold in the market at St.. George's. Probably either could be largely raised, were the demand sufficient. In 1670, the Company urged the improved culture of "English wheat," but there is no record of its success at any period.* Attempts had been made in the earlier periods to produce saffron, indigo, madder, grapes, aloes, anise and coriander seeds, and many other minor products, but without any commei'cial success. (See Part III, chapter 27, for more details.) Sweet potatoes were probably introduced in 1616 and have always been cultivated, to a considerable extent, for domestic use. The amount in 1 844 was recorded as 11,269 bushels. There are no records of any considerable amounts having been exported, though probably they may have been quite largely shipped to New England and New York by the local trading vessels, with contraband tobacco, etc., in former times. The amount now raised is about 500,000 pounds annually. /'. — Bananas, Pineapples, Oranges, Lemons, etc. Bananas were introduced in 1616 and soon became very abundant. They have formed an important article of food ever since that time, but are now only raised for local consumption, for they cannot com- pete with those from the West Indies and Central America in the * Governor Butler, when enumerating the productions, in 1619, said : " Store of come (I mean Indian corne, for the Christian proves not as yet to be had, by overunkindnesse of the ground runnes all to grasse)." 526 A. JEJ. Verrill — Tlie Bermuda Islands. American markets. In early times they were preserved in different ways and shipped to London to some extent. The present produc- tion is from 10,000 to 12,000 bunches. (See ch. 27.) The Pineapple was also introduced in 1616 and flourished very well for some sixty years. Large quantities were raised, about 1630 to 10 70, and many were shipped to England. But probably the long voyage was not favorable for this trade, at that time. At present they are seldom cultivated. Oranges and Lemons were also introduced before 1617, and flour- ished luxuriantly. They were soon widely cultivated and produced excellent fruit, much of which was exported to London, Virginia, New York, and New England. For a long period, after tobacco ceased to be profitable, oranges formed one of the principal exports to London, and they were sometimes shipped even to Barbadoes. It is recorded that in 1660 a vessel sailed for Barbadoes "filled up with oranges and potatoes." There are records of shipments to New England as early as 1636, but especially after 1644, and this trade continued for a long period. Oranges were often shipped in large quantities to London, from in 4 4 to 1700 and later. The London Company, in 1677, sent a vessel to Bermuda with special orders to take back 400 chests of oranges, and many vessels returning from the West Indies to England used to call there to complete their cargoes with oranges. At some periods (1632, 1671), this trade was nearly destroyed by the Company pro- hibiting the use of cedar lumber for chests in which to ship the oranges. As they had no other material suitable for orange chests, this was nearly equivalent to suppressing the trade altogether, except as it may have been secretly carried on with the colonies. At such times, and later, onions and oranges were sometimes shipped in baskets made of palmetto leaves. Sometimes, as in 1659 and 1673, this oppressive law was so modi- fied as to allow oranges and other native products, except tobacco, to be shipped in cedar chests. But their cultivation greatly declined from 1770 to 1840. The Bermuda oranges were very highly esteemed, though there is no evidence that any particular trouble was taken to secure choice varieties by grafting, until modern times, as is now universally done in Florida and California. Most of the orange and lemon trees were killed or ruined (about 1 855-70) by a disease or blight, which seems to have been caused mainly or entirely by scale-insects, which were neglected and allowed to increase to infinite numbers. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 527 At the present time a few good oranges are raised, on some large estates, for family use, and some are sold for local consumption, but not enough to supply more than a small fraction of the local demand. Most of the trees that I examined were more or less infested with scale insects, but usually were not badly damaged. (See ch. 27.) The number of oranges produced in 1881 was 24,228 dozen ; in 1891, 12,871 dozen; in 1901, 109 dozen. Of lemons, in 1881, 2,589 dozen ; 1891, 1,125 dozen ; 1901, 264 dozen. Peaches were at one time, especially about fifty to sixty years ago, raised in large quantities, but owing to the ravages of insects, allowed to go on unchecked, and perhaps of fungous diseases also, the trees have nearly all been killed. g. — Corn or Maize. Indian corn was raised by the three pioneers in 1610-12, and from that time forward it formed, with potatoes, the staple food product of the islands. From 1615 down to 1684, or later, stores of Indian corn were constantly kept in the magazines at the principal forts and elsewhere, for a reserve against scarcity. As much as 300,000 ears were sometimes stored for this purpose, and renewed annually.* It was stated by Governor Butler that Deputy-governor Kendall, in 1616, sold to a pirate vessel 300,000 ears from the King's Castle, for his own benefit (and the promise of a share in subsequent plun- der, which he did not get). Levies for public purposes were often made in corn, counting the ears, but finally it was found that dis- honest persons cheated by retaining the larger ears and sending away the small or damaged ones, to pay their debts, and so a law was passed in 1623, requiring corn to be reckoned by weight. * The early writers give little information as to the modes of preparation and cooking of the corn. Probably the corn meal was, for a long time, prepared entirely by pounding it in a mortar. In one case the governor complained to the Company that instead of keeping their muskets in good order, the men had converted them into pestles for pounding corn. In connection with the records of the interminable and bitter religious dissen- sions and persecutions, about 1640 to 1660, a famous " Mill" in Pembroke Parish is incidentally mentioned as a place where the dissenters from the established church were wont to meet, for services. This was probably a grist-mill for grinding corn by a windmill. There is a place on Spanish Point still called " The Mill," perhaps the site of the ancient mill, which was thus occupied as an illegal church in 1647 aDd 1648. The clergyman, Eev. Nathaniel White, was imprisoned in 1648 for "continuing the gathering of people at the mill, con- trary to the laws and orders.'' He was afterwards banished (in 1649) to Eleutheria, but later, was allowed to return. 528 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. In early times the corn was often badly damaged by " weevils," causing great loss.* It was early accidentally discovered that if it were kept with the husks on the ears it was much less liable to be damaged in that way. During the 17th century large amounts of corn were exported to the West Indies, but no definite figures are usually given. It was also sold to vessels touching at the Bermudas for supplies. The amount raised in 1900 was 1,301 bushels. h. — Potatoes, Onions, Tomatoes. Potatoes were first raised here in 1613, and soon became very abundant. They were early shipped to the West Indies, Virginia, and New England. In 1620, 20,000 bushels were shipped to Vir- ginia. A large supply was sent to New England in 1636, in a time of scarcity there.f They have always formed a staple article of food in Bermuda, and also one of the most important exports. In modern times the quantity annually shipped to New York has been large, as compared with the amount of land in cultivation. (See table.) According to Governor Lefroy the amount shipped in 1876 was 33,099 barrels or 2,260 tons. General Hastings stated that in 1890-91, 80,000 bushels were shipped, on which the duty was $20,000. The largest crop that I have seen recorded was in 1882, viz : 40,503 barrels, valued at £76,560. The smallest crop in 20 years was 13,390 barrels, in 1885, valued at £15,091. During this period the crop has generally been between 20,000 and 30,000 barrels. The seed potatoes are all imported into Bermuda from the north- ern United States and the British Provinces. Various early varieties are cultivated, but to be saleable in New York they must be more or less red, like the Early Rose, Garnet, Prolific, etc., otherwise they would not be thought genuine by many.J They are planted from Oct. 15 to Feb. 15, and mature in 80 to 90 days. * Probably Silojihilus granarius, the grain and corn weevil of Europe and America. (See ch. 37.) f January 8, 1636, the following arrival is recorded: "The Rebecca arrived in Massachusetts Bay from Bermuda, with thirty thousand weight of potatoes and stores of oranges and limes which are a great relief to our people — hut their corn was sold to the West Indies three months before. Potatoes were bought there for two shillings and eight pence the bushell, and sold here for two pence the pound." \ It seems to be popularly believed, in our cities, that the Bermuda potatoes belong to a red variety peculiar to those islands, and some imagine that the color is due to the redness of the soil there. Potato plants, in Bermuda, do not grow just as in the United States, for they form much shorter and less branched roots. Each plant usually produces only A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 529 At the present time, and for some years past, the early onions and potatoes have been the principal crops exported. They are now shipped almost entirely to New York, and are always in demand, at a good price, though the import duty is unreasonably high. Owing to the limited amount of fertile land, and its high price, and the expense of labor, intensive fanning is the only method that can be profitably employed. The crops must either be such as can be produced in large quantities per acre,* and in two or more crops each year, like the onions and potatoes, or else one that will bring a high price, like the Easter Lily bulbs. The cultivation of onions on a large scale began about 1830; but considerable quantities had been shipped to the West Indies even during the 17th century. In 1832, the crop was 253,000 pounds; in 1835 it was 478,800 pounds; in 1844, 332,735 pounds. The amount shipped since 1870 has varied considerably. Previous to 1875 it was usually less than 150,000 boxes. Since 1880 it has usually varied from 200,000 to 350,000 ; but in 1899 the amount was 462,701 boxes, valued at £66,252, the largest crop that I have seen recorded. (See table.) General Russell Hastings stated that in 1890-91, the amount paid to the United States, as import duty, on the Bermuda onions, was $104,400, at the rate of 40 cents per bushel. (Garden and Forest, iv, p. 452, 1891.) Such a duty seems outrageously high on food stuffs of such kinds. The soil and climate of Bermuda seem admir- ably adapted for producing the finest quality of early onions. The variations in the size of the crop are due to several causes. Some seasons are much more favorable than others, though onions are less affected by this cause than many other crops. Sometimes the seed, which is all imported, mostly from Teneriffe and Madeira, has been scarce and not so good as usual. Two varieties are raised, red and white. two or three good tubers, clustered close together on the short roots. Therefore they are planted in drills, and much nearer together than in New England. One barrel of seed potatoes will usually, in good enriched soil, produce from three to six barrels of new potatoes. The United States duty is 25 cents per bushel, which is an unnecessary and exorbitant tax. * The average amount of onions produced per acre here, under the eai'ly sys- tem of culture, has been stated at 20,000 pounds. Sometimes the yield was much more in good soils, and in a favorable season. It now varies widely, according to the natural fertility of the soil and the nature and amount of fer- tilizers used. The use of artificial fertilizers for any of the crops is quite modern, but very desirable. Onion seed is planted in carefully prepared seed- ling beds, from September to November. Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XI. 34 May, 1902. 530 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. The onions have at times been subject to a serious fungous dis- ease,* which causes great loss. A small insect, the " Onion Thrips" ( Thrips tabaci) frequently causes considerable damage by biting the leaves and causing them to turn yellow. (See ch. 29 and 37.) Tomatoes have been cultivated for a long time, and formerly were exported to New York in large quantities. After 1890, the amount rapidly declined from 28,830 boxes in 1890 to 146 boxes in 1900. This was due partly to competition with the fruit raised in Florida and other southern States, and largely to the high tariff. In 1871, the amount exported was 115,868 boxes, valued at £13,718; and in 1876, it reached 154,350 boxes, valued at £12,755, which is the largest crop recorded. Between 1880 and 1890 it varied from 122,160 boxes in 1884 to 11,283 boxes in 1889. The prices rapidly declined at the same time. (See table.) Table of Exports of Products from Bermuda, 1870-80 and 1890-1900. Arrowroot. Beets , &c. Onions. Potatoes. Tomatoes. Total Qnty. Value. Pkgs. Value. Boxes. Value. Brls. Value. Boxes. Value. Value of Crop. lbs. £ £ £ £ £ £ 1870 7484 414 106640 19277 11790 9254 49245 5639 34884 1871 32940 1473 81 16 103400 20676 11549 10958 115868 13718 46906 1872 34445 2186 151 55 161520 31760 17948 1710 5 109781 12163 64085 1873 39573 1763 153 94 124730 30500 20336 19667 87507 9432 61456 1874 11608 507 367 145 156871 48012 19048 19568 80671 11528 74820 1875 39003 2393 846 195 207671 20275 31116 26403 99775 9329 58622 1876 4800 250 1043 257 163590 28457 33099 26102 154350 12755 67901 1877 21485 1084 139 162 81S03 22087 21004 21005 89429 9149 53573 1878 16840 780 1832 295 178687 28090 29739 14967 113772 5688 49820 1879 21346 1317 789 165 173566 31578 31275 26785 64732 4862 64707 1880 20624 12s«.i 1568+ 340 185531 48553 27562 20804 66975 6048 77034 1890 9213 613 5180 743 275750 82087 35714 34117 !>kk:;o 2513 120075 1891 28050 1626 2514 271 304975 81446 27576 27104 11433 814 111264 1892 10000 750 1628 212 360842 55027 26878 27686 5759 282 83957 1893 35400 17(Jf9 1655 206 353027 61578 30486+ 27788 1781 137 91418 1894 19880 1002 891 111 177166 45644 20110 19482 2146 190 66429 1895 4547 227 1156 215 295269 46048 27143 27004 1021 92 73586 1896 8336 484 421 61 329477 57437 22882 20084 19320 456 38 77340 1897 6941 429 438 49 245645 84548 1*527 467 28 103581 1898 22100 1212 130 17 297346 59737 21301* 18844 226 18 7982S 1899 22300 111 67 10 462701 66252 26800 24071 434 26 91470 1900 33350 | 1792 67 7 326697 43490 25148 22914 146 11 68214 Early beets and some other garden vegetables are now shipped to some extent to New York, but they have to compete with those grown in Florida, South Carolina, etc., with the high tariff in favor of the latter, so that this business is not a promising one, at present. * The onion disease in Bermuda has been discussed by A. E. Shipley, in the Bulletin of the Kew Royal Gardens, October, 1887. No. 10. It causes the leaves to rot at the base. A, jEJ. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 531 i. — Arroio-root. Arrow-root was introduced into Bermuda rather more than one hundred years ago, and has been cultivated for commercial purposes for more than eighty years. It is still raised in considerable quanti- ties, but is relatively of much less importance than formerly. From 100 pounds of the root, 15 to 20 pounds of starch are obtained.* The amount produced in 1832 was 34,883 pounds ; in 1833, 44,651 pounds ; in 1835, 67,575 pounds. In 1844, the crop of rough arrow-roots was 1,110,502 pounds, yielding about 90 tons of starch for export. During the last thirty years the amount has usually varied between 9,000 to 33,000 pounds, but in 1876 and 1895 it was less than 5,000 pounds; while in 1873 and 1875 it was over 35,000 pounds. In 1900 it was 33,350 pounds, valued at £1,792. The price has been very irregular, and the crop is very exhaustive to the soil. (See table.) j. — Easter Lilies, etc. The cultivation of the Easter Lily, for its bulbs, for exportation, was begun about twenty years ago, and soon attained considerable importance. Although this culture still continues, it has very much decreased within the last few years,f owing to the spread of a destructive fungous disease among the bulbs. (See Part III, ch. 27.) The number of large bulbs suitable for exportation raised in 1890, according to the census, was 2,116,000 ; those for stock, 4,769,000. The exportation of the leaves of the Cj'cad or "Sago Palm" ( Cycas revoluta) to New York, for decorative purposes, was carried on to a considerable extent, a number of years ago, especially by Mr. G. W. West. Many other vegetable productions have been exported, to some extent, at various times, for a large variety of crops can be grown here, including both those of the temperate and the tropical zones. J * A modern mill, with machinery for the manufactui-e of arrow-root, has recently been built at "Belle Vue," near Hamilton, by Mr. W. T. James. Such improvements may lead to a larger cultivation of this crop. f It is said that the remedies now being used by many planters for the disease of the lily, and for the mite with which it is also infested, have been of great benefit, and that the yield is likely to increase. But the past winter, 1901-2, has been very unfavorable for this crop. X I have been unable to find any records of attempts to cultivate certain pro- ducts that have been found profitable in the West Indies, and which might, per- haps, do well in Bermuda. For instance : the cacao-tree (Theobroma), from 532 A. E Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. But a great many kinds of vegetables and fruits are grown here for domestic use only, the quantity often being insufficient to supply the local demand. This is, at present, the case with melons, corn, turnips, lettuce, radishes and other vegetables, as well as oranges, strawberries, bananas, grapes, pawpaws, and all the other fruits raised. The amounts of some of these products raised in 1900 are reported as follows : — Tomatoes 31,730 crates Bananas 10,305 bunches Sweet Potatoes 501,700 pounds Turnips and Carrots. 117,451 pounds Celery, Parsley, Lettuce 1 8,039 boxes Miscellaneous Vegetables 150,537 pounds Melons 63,604 Oranges 109 dozen Lemons 264 dozen Other Citrus fruits. ._ 178 dozen Grapes 1 ,602 pounds Part III. — Changes in the Flora and Fauna due to Man, with a Sketch of the Discovery and Early History. Modern examples of rapid changes in the flora and fauna of various countries are not lacking, but they have not been sufficiently studied. In nearly all modern instances the advent of man, and especially of civilized man, has been the prime factor in the more marked changes, either directly or indirectly. But as aboriginal man had occupied nearly all countries, even in prehistoric times, it is usually impossible to ascertain the conditions that prevailed before human interference with nature. Therefore in most countries we can only study the influence of civilized man, as following uncivilized and prehistoric man. Generally the early descriptions of the fauna and flora of countries when first settled by civilized men, even a few hundreds of years ago, like North and South America and the West Indies, are very imper- fect and incomplete, if not misleading, for reliable descriptions seldom date from the earliest settlements. Frequently the earlier changes are the most rapid ones. which chocolate is made. This grows in the West Indies in poor rocky soils where little else will grow, and at elevations up to 1,000 to 1,500 feet, where the climate is relatively cool. In many places it is the most profitable crop that can be raised. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 533 The Bermuda Islands afford unusually favorable conditions, though on a small scale, for such studies, for at the time when they were first visited by Europeans, in the sixteenth century, they had never been occupied even by aboriginal man. They were discovered a little before 1511. During the next 100 years they were seldom visited, and no good descriptions were pub- lished until 1594 and 1610. We fortunately have, for the latter period, very good accounts of the more important animal and vegetable productions, as they existed before the permanent settle- ment made there in 1612. We also have unusually full records of the remarkable changes that were effected during the next quarter of a century, as well as subsequently. 23. — SketcJi of the Discovery and Early History ; Historical Ship- wrecks. The early history of the Bermudas is briefly as follows : — They were discovered by Juan Bermudez, according to Oviedo. Since they are represented on the map of Peter Martyr, in 1511, his dis- covery must have been a little before that time. They were visited in 1515 by Oviedo, but his account indicates that bad weather prevented his landing to leave hogs there, as he intended. At least one or two early shipwrecks, of which we have no details, are recorded shortly after that time. Probably there were many other early ones of which we have no record. The islands were regarded as very dangerous to approach, even at a distance, and as the abode of demons. They were called "Devils Hands" during that century, and were carefully avoided by all merchant vessels. It is possible that the Spanish government sent other vessels, of which we have no record, to do what Oviedo failed in doing. Probably these islands were visited, during that period, by buc- caneers and pirates, for wood and water, and perhaps for repairs. The hogs may have been secretly put on the islands by such vessels, during that century, in order to furnish a supply of fresh meat, in case of need, for it was a common custom at that time to place hogs, goats, etc., on uninhabited islands. They may have tried to intro- duce goats, also, on these islands, but those introduced later by the English settlers did not thrive there,* though they do at the present time. The wild hogs, however, had become very numerous in 1593. * Probably at that time there were poisonous weeds that they ate, which may now be rare or extinct. Governor Butler suggested later that they ate too much tobacco. 534 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. a. — Shipwreck of the Bonaventura, 1593. The first actual description of the islands was published by Mr. Henry May, in London, 1594. Mr. May was an English sailor, returning from the West Indies, on the "Bonaventura," a French privateer. This vessel, through the drunkenness and carelessness of the officers and crew, as stated by May, was wrecked on the outer reefs of the Bermudas, alongside of the North Rocks, which are detached pinnacles of limestone rock, about 12 feet high, situated about eight miles from the land. The scene of this wreck is engraved on the reverse of the ancient Bermuda seal. (See figure 29.) This wreck occurred at about midnight, December 17th, 1593 (old style). They built a raft, which they towed behind a boat (apparently they had only one boat), and by this means, after rowing all day, 26 of the officers and men were saved, including Mr. May. He was taken on board by the captain, just as they were leaving the vessel, and when he, being an Englishman, little expected it, as he says, " leaving the better half of our company to perish by the sea." They afterwards recovered some tools, sails, cordage, and provi- sions, so that they were able to build a boat of 1 8 tons, out of the native cedar wood. In this, at the end of five months, they sailed to the fishing fleet, on the Newfoundland Banks, and by some of those vessels w T ere taken to Europe. May arrived in Falmouth, Aug. 7, 1593. Mr. May published, next year, an account of his experiences, with a brief, but fairly correct description of the Bermudas and their products. He particularly mentioned the wild hogs that they found there, but which, at that time of the year, they found very lean, for lack of food. The hogs fed largely on palmetto and cedar berries, both of which ripen in the fall and early winter. They found there a great abundance of sea-birds (Cahows and Terns) and lived largely on them and their eggs. The sea-turtles, which w-ere large and abundant, bred there at that lime and furnished them with both meat and eggs. Fish were also abundant. The following is his description of their ship-building and furnish- ing "Now it pleased God before our ship did split, that we saved our Carpenters tooles, els I thinke we had bene there to this day; and having recovered the aforesaid tooles, we went roundly about the cutting downe of trees, and in the end built a small barke of some eighteen tons, for the most part with tronnels and very few nailes. As for tackling \\v made a voyage aboord the ship before she split; A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 535 and cut down her shrouds, and so we tackled our barke, and rigged her. In stead of pitch we made lime, and mixed it with the oyl of tortoises, and as soone as the carpenters had calked, I and another, with ech of us a small sticke in our hands, did plaister the mortar into the seames, and being in April when it was warm and faire weather, we could no sooner lay it on, but it was dry, and as hard as a stone. In this moneth of April, 1594, the weather being very hot, we were af rayed our water should fayle us ; and therefore made the more haste away ; and at our departure we were constrayned to make two great chests and calked them, and stowed them on ech side of our mainmaste, and so put in our provision of raine water and thirteen live tortoises for our food, for our voyage which we intended to Newfoundland." May in his narrative, states that when they went ashore in the night, they supposed they were on the shore of the island, because of the " hie cliffs," but in the morning they found that they were seven leagues away from it. He also says that after building a raft they towed this ashore "astern of their boat," and that "we rowed all the day until an hour or two before night yer we could come on land." Historians and others have been misled by this statement and have even imagined that they must have been wrecked on some far more distant island which has since been worn away or submerged ; or else that there was more land near the North Rocks. (See Lefroy, Memorials, i, p. 9.) But it is evident that May meant that it w r as seven leagues as they had to row, for they could not cross the reefs at that point, in the surf, and must have rowed along outside of the reef till they reached the present ship-channel and there entered the bay and landed, probably on St. George's Island. This would have caused them to row about seven leagues and would doubtless have taken all day with the boat heavily laden and towing a raft astern. On the Norwood map published in 1626,* in the two lower corners * This map was made by a very competent surveyor, Eichard Norwood, who resided here many years. His first survey was made between 1615 and 1622. His completed map, dated 1622, and engraved in Amsterdam, was published and for sale in London in 1626 ; and this seems to be the best edition of it, for the outlines are engraved clearly and with care. Two other editions were published about the same tune. He subsequently made another map, finished in 1663, on which every lot of land was located and numbered. (See Lefroy, Memorials, ii, p. 645, reprint of map.) He died in Bermuda, Oct., 1675, aged 84 years. Some of his descend- ants still reside there. :,:;.; A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. are engravings of the seal of the original Bermuda Company. On the reverse side of the seal (fig. 29) there is a view of a wrecked vessel alongside of two high rocks, which are easily recognized as the two main North Rocks. The vessel, with broken masts, stands upright, between the largest rock and a small one that exists to the right, and is therefore concealed by the hull of the vessel. In a Figure 29. — Facsimile of the reverse of the ancient seal of the Bermuda Com- pany, engraved on the border of Norwood's map of Bermuda, published in 1626. It shows the wreck of May's vessel, the " Bonaventura." in 1593, alongside of the North Bocks, which then appeared much as at present. Enlarged li times. photographic view (fig. 30) taken in December, 1875, by Mr. Hey], of Bermuda, a man stands where the vessel stood and the two views are apparently from nearly the same point. The two rocks in the old print are represented as nearly equal in height, but now one is decidedly lower than the other. This ancient sketch, imperfect as it naturally is. corresponds remarkably well with the outlines of the rocks, as seen in the photo- graph. (Fig. 30.) This proves that these rocks have undergone but little change in general form since the early settlement of Ber- muda, for this seal was probably engraved as early as L616-18. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 53 7 The drawing was very likely made by Mr. Richard Norwood for this purpose, for lie was a man of good ability as a draughtsman, and was making his first survey in 1616. The scene evidently com- memorates the wreck of the French vessel, the " Bonaventura," on the 17th of Nov., 1593, on board of which was the English seaman, Henry May, who published after his escape to England, in 1594, an account of his experiences. A comparison of several photographs, taken at various times within the past thirty years, shows but little alteration in these North Rocks, but some severe storm may suddenly overthrow them. They are situated near the extreme edge of the outer reefs, about eight miles from the islands, and stand on an extensive patch of flat reef, part of which is laid bare by low tides. (Fig. 30.) They are 8 to 144 Figure 30.— North Rocks, bearing N. 80° W. ; height of highest point ll 1 ^ feet, above low-tide. From a photograph taken by Mr. J. B. Heyl, Dec. 27, 1875. feet high and evidently are the remains of an island of considerable height and extent that has been nearly worn away to the sea-level by erosion. The evidence from the ancient seal indicates that the erosion even in this exposed situation has not been rapid, though these rocks seem to have decreased somewhat in height. b. — Shipwreck of the Sea Venture, 1600. But another remarkable shipwreck, which occurred there in 1609, attracted far more attention, and led to the settlement of the islands in 1(512. 538 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. The "Sea Venture," a ship of 300 tons, was the flag-ship of a fleet of eight vessels, on its way to the young colony at Jamestown, Virginia, having on board Sir Thomas Gates, governor-elect of Vir- ginia, and Sir George Somers (also written Summers and Sommers), the admiral, Avith about 1 o0 others. On July 24th (old style), when about 20*) leagues from Bermuda, they encountered a terrific hurricane, which caused the ship to spring a bad leak that could not be stopped. For three days and four nights they were driven about helplessly by the storm. All the company worked day and night with three pumps and many buckets to keep the ship from sinking; 100 men working at a time. According to Strachy* the governor and the admiral took their turns at the pumps to encourage the men. The following extracts are from his account of this storm and shipwreck : " Windes and Seas were so mad, as fury and rage could make them; for mine owne part, I had ben in some stormes before, as well upon the coast of Barbary and Algeere, in the Levant, and once more distresful in the Adriatique gulfe, in a bottome of Candy. . . . Yet all that I had ever suffered gathered together, might not hold comparison with this ; there was not a moment in which the sodaine splitting, or instant over-setting of the Shippe was not expected. * Full descriptions of this tempest and wreck were published by Strachy, Jourdan, and others. The narratives of this remarkable storm and shipwreck were published at about the time when Shakespeare was wri ting his "Tempest.' The coincidences in many of the details are so striking that it has been thought that he derived some of his ideas from these accounts, and that Bermuda was. in a way, the island described. During the height of the storm the bright elec- tric discharges, called " St. Elmo's Fire," appeared, gliding about on the masts, yards, and shrouds for several hours together, during the night, much as described in the " Tempest." Strachy described this appearance as follows : — "During all this time, the heavens look'd so blacke upon us, that it was not possible the elevation of the Pole might be observed : nor a Starre by night, nor Sun beame by day was to be seene. Onely upon the thursday night Sir Geoi'ge Summers being upon the watch, had an apparition of a little round light, like a faint Starre, trembling, and streaming along with a sparkleing blaze, halfe the height upon the Main Mast, and shooting sometimes from Shroud to Shroud, tempting to settle as it were upon any of the four< Shrouds: and for three or foure houres together, or rather more, halfe the night it kept with us, running sometimes along the Mainyard to the very end, and then returning. At which, Sir George Summers called divers about him. and showed them the same, who observed it with much wonder, and carefulnesse : hut upon a sodaine, towards the morning watch, they lost the sight of it. and knew not what way it made." A. JE. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 539 Howbeit this was not all; it pleased God to bring a greater afflic- tion yet upon us ; for in the beginning of the storme we had received likewise a mighty leake. And the Ship in every joint almost, hav- ing spued out her Okam, before we were aware (a casualty more desperate then any other that a Voyage by Sea draweth with it) was growne five foote suddenly deepe with water above her ballast, and we almost drowned within, whilest we sat looking when to perish from above. This imparting no lesse terrour then danger, ranne through the whole Ship with much fright and amazement, startled and turned the blond, and tooke downe the braves of the most hardy Marriner of them all, insomuch as he that before happily felt not the sorrow of others, now began to sorrow for him- selfe, when he saw such a pond of water so suddenly broken in, and which he knew could not (without present avoiding) but instantly sinke him." . . . " Then men might be seene to labour, I may well say, for life, and the better sort, even our Governour, and Admirall themselves, not refusing their turne, and to spell each the other, to give example to other. The common sort stripped naked, as men in Gallies, the easier both to hold out, and to shrinke from under the salt water, which continually leapt in among them, kept their eyes waking, and their thoughts and hands working, with tyred bodies, and wasted spirits, three dayes and foure nights, destitute of outward comfort, and desperate of any deliverance, testifying how mutually willing they were, yet by labour to keepe each other from drowning, albeit each one drowned whilest he laboured." . . . " Once, so huge a Sea brake upon the poope and quarter, upon us, as it covered our Shippe from stearne to stemme, like a garment or a vast cloude, it filled her brimme full for a while within, from the hatches up to the sparre decke. This source or confluence of water was so violent as it rusht and carried the Helm-man from the Helme, and wrested the Whipstaffe out of his hand, which so flew from side to side, that when he would have ceased the same againe, it so tossed him from Star-boord to Lar-boord, as it was Gods mercy it had not split him." . . . " Our Governour was at this time below at the Capstone, both by his speech and authoritie heartening every man unto his labour. It strooke him from the place where he sate, and groveled him, and all us about him on our faces, beating together with our breaths all thoughts from our bosomes, else, then that Avee were now sinking. For my part, I thought her alreadie in the bottome of the Sea ; and 540 A. K Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. I have heard him say, wading out of the floud thereof, all his ambi- tion was but to climb above hatches to die in Aperto ccelo, and in the company of his old friends." According to Jonrdan, Admiral Somers showed great courage and endurance. He says that the admiral descried the land while sitting " on the Poope," " where he sate three days and three nights together, without meales, meate, and little or no sleepe, conning the ship to keep her as upright as he could, for otherwise shee must needes have instantly foundered." With all that they could do she had nine feet of water in the hold. On the 28th of July, when they had nearly given up in despair, they made the islands of Bermuda and tried to run the ship ashore on a sandy beach that they saw, but fortunately she struck on an outlying reef, which, according to Somers' own report, in 1610, was a quarter of a mile from the shore. She lodged in an upright posi- tion between two rocks, and was so firmly wedged there that she remained in that position, so that the entire party, including some women and children, were safely taken ashore in the boats. They landed in a "goodly bay," "upon which our governor did first leape ashore, and therefore called it, as aforesaid, Gates-his- Bay." This name, Gates' Bay, does not appear on any modern maps, nor even on the early ones of Norwood, 1022 and 1663. Governor Butler, in his " Historye," stated that this was the bay or cove close by Fort Catherine. He was undoubtedly familiar with the details of this shipwreck. Certainly there were, in his time, some of the wrecked company living on the islands, and certain parts of the wreck were still visible. Indeed, in 1622, he recovered from the wreck two pieces of ordnance; one of these, called a " saker," was not much damaged; also a large sheet anchor, and sundry bars of iron, steel, and lead, all of which the colony much needed, as he stated in his history. But if this cove were the Gates' Bay referred to. either the modern location of the " Sea Adventure Shoals," on the Admiralty Chart, is incorrect, or else Sir George Somers much underestimated the distance from the shore,* for the shoals so named are put on the chart at a distance of about one mile from the beach at Fort Catherine, but only half a mile from that of the nearer bay, now called Buildings Bay. If the site of the wreck he correctly located * Wm. Strachy, in his narrative, stated that the distance was three-quarters of a mile. Silvanus Jonrdan, one of the same company, stated that it was "half an English mile." Tin- admiral's estimate would, naturally, be the more cornet. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 541 on the chart, the boats would naturally have landed in the latter bay, which was much nearer and more sheltered, for the wind was then off shore, as narrated. But probably, in the long lapse of time, without any sure marks to indicate the spot, the actual place of the shipwreck would have been forgotten.* It may well have been on one of the numerous reefs that lie much nearer to the land, off this shore. No accurate survey of these reefs was made till 1798, or 189 years after the wreck. There are plenty of reefs that would have caught the ship, within about a quarter of a mile of the beach at Fort Catherine. There- fore it seems more probable that Governor Butler was right, as to the landing place, and that the Admiralty Chart is incorrect, as to the location of " Sea Venture Shoals." Strachy in his narrative, 1610, designated "Furbusher's Building Bay " and distinguished it from Gates' Bay. The main ship-channel now runs close by these shoals and reefs, which are well buoyed. This shipwrecked company, according to Somers, numbered 140, but according to Strachy there were about 140 men, "besides women." The memorial tablet erected by the governor, when they departed, also stated that there were 150 persons. (See p. 543.) As the storm abated the same day, they were able to strip the ship of almost everything that they could use, including the ord- nance, cordage, and some meal, but the bread was all spoiled. Thus, later in the season, they were able to build and equip two small cedar vessels, in which they escaped to Virginia. They remained on the islands nine months. During that time Admiral Somers surveyed and made a map of the reefs and islands. This map was never published and is unknown. One vessel of cedar, 40 feet long and 19 feet beam, and of about TO tons, was built under the direction of Governor Gates, on St. George's Island, by Mr. Furbusher (or Frobisher, as some spelled it), who was a master carpenter. According to tradition, it was built at the eastern end of St. George's Island, in Buildings Bay, and this is probable true. According to the statement made by Wm, Strachy, 1610, it was built in a bay opening to the northwest, so that when the violent winds blew from the "north and by west," in the winter, it made great seas and came near destroying the vessel, while on the stocks, so that they had to build around * It must be remembered that the detailed history of those times, by Governor Butler, was not published until recently, and was previously unknown to the Bermudians and others. The same is true of other documents now available. 542 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. her a breakwater of "100 loads of stone" to protect her from the seas. As soon as launched the} r took her unrigged to the lee of a " little round Hand, lying west North-west, and close aboard to the backside of our Hand," for shelter, and to be handy to the pits that they had dug to collect fresh water, and also for greater convenience in sailing away. This was probably at the site of St. George's, for he speaks of this place, as distinguished from their " old quarters," on the other side of the island. These water-pits are often mentioned by later writers. The " little round island " was probably Ordnance Island, as it is now called, which lies close to the docks of St. George's, and thus on the '•'backside" of their island as they were in the habit of viewing it. There can scarcely be a doubt that the bay or cove still called Buildings Bay was the actual place where they built their larger vessel, for a memorial tablet was set up there, which was preserved for many years afterwards. It stated in Latin, that a ship of 70 tons was built at that place, by Mr. Frobisher, in 1610. Moreover, some of the shipwrecked party afterwards settled in Bermuda, so that the local traditions were continuously handed down. This small bay or cove lies open to the north and northeast, so that a strong north or northwest wind would evidently cause large seas to enter it. It seems strange, at first thought, that they did not build it on the harbor side of St. George's, but Ave must remember that at first the channels were unknown and the island was densely wooded, and they probably preferred to live on the outer coast, the better to keep a lookout for vessels. It is also stated that they kept great fires continually burning, probably as a signal to any vessel that might approach the islands. Before sailing away Governor Gates erected a memorial tablet and ctoss, as seems to have been the custom in those days, to indicate a claim on the islands, for his king and country. Strachy described it as follows : " Our Governour set up in Sir George Summers' Garden a faire Mnemosynon in figure of a Crosse, made of some of the timber of our ruined shippe, which was scrued in with strong and great trun- nels to a mightie Cedar, which grew in the middest of the said Garden, and whose top and upper branches he caused to be lopped, that the violence of the winde and weather might have the lesse power over her. In the middest of the Crosse, our Governour fastened the Picture A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 543 of his Majestie in a piece of Silver of twelve pence, and on each side of the Crosse, hee set an Inscription graven in Copper, in the Latine and English to this purpose. " In memory of our great Deliverance, hoth from a mightie storme and leake : we have set up this to the honour of God. It is the spoyle of an English ship of three hundred tunne, called the SEA VENTURE, bound with seven ships more (from which the storme divided us) to Virginia, or Nova Britania, in America. In it were two Knights, Sir Thomas Gates, Knight, Governour of the English Forces and Colonie there : and Sir George Summers, Knight, Admirall of the Seas. Her Captaine was Christopher Newport, Passengers and Mariners, shee had beside (which came all safe to Land) one hundred and fiftie. We were forced to runne her ashore (by reason of her leake) under a Point that bore South-east from the Northerne Point of the Hand, which was discovered first the eisrht and twentieth of July 1 009." Sir George Somers built a smaller pinnace, 29 feet long and 15^ feet beam, of about 30 tons, at a " Building Bay " on the Main Island, but the exact site is unknown.* During this period of nine months they had there three mutinies, one murder, one execution, one marriage, and two christenings, besides other notable events. Strachy states that Admiral' Somers laid out a garden at Gates' Bay, close to the shore, and planted various vegetable seeds, which came up, but came to nothing, and that the sugar canes that he planted were eaten by the wild hogs, for he had no fences. The planting was not done at the best season, and the soil may have been poor or too dry; moreover the exposure to northerly and easterly winds and spray might have killed his plants, for they were near the shore. f They found fishes, birds, and sea-tui'tles very abundant, as well as * Strachy 's description of Somers' pinnace is as follows: "About the last of Aprill, Sir George Summers launched his Pinnasse, and brought her from his building Bay, in the Mayne Hand, into the Channell where om^s did ride, and shee was by the Keele nine and twentie foot : at the Beanie fifteene foot and an halfe : at the Loofe fourteene, at the Transam nine, and she was eight foot deepe, and drew sixe foot water, and hee called her the Patience." This appears to have been the same vessel in which Somers returned to Ber- muda a few months later, and in which his party returned thence to England. f If the wood rats were then present on the islands, as seems probable, they might have destroyed the plants at night, without being observed, as in later years. 544: A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. wild hogs. The}'- made salt and salted down fishes and birds for their voyage. They also killed large numbers of wild hogs, not only for their immediate use, but they also dried the meat for future use. These provisions, together with living turtles and what meal they had left, they took to Virginia. They had fed upon palmetto berries, prickly pears, cedar berries, and the heads of the palinettoes so largely that considerable meal had been saved. They sailed for Jamestown, Ma}' 10th, 1610, and arrived there on the 24th. They found the Virginia colony in a starving condition on account of a famine. Three persons had already died of hunger, and many were ill. Their fortunate arrival with provisions saved the colony from destruction. Soon after, finding that they had rations for only two weeks, the whole colony abandoned the settle- ment and started for Newfoundland for food, June 8th. Lord Dela- ware arriving just at this time, with three vessels and some provi- sions, met them on the way and they returned. The opportune arrival from Bermuda changed materially the course of history for that colony. Had they not arrived just at that time, with provi- sions, the colony must have been abandoned entirely, and perhaps most of the people would have died of starvation. It is not strange that the devout men of that period attributed this remarkable series of events to the direct interposition of Divine Providence. But Admiral Soniers and Governor Gates were cer- tainly very able and efficient men, otherwise these events never could have turned out so favorably. Scarcity of food still prevailing at Jamestown, Admiral Somers undertook to return to the Bermudas in his cedar vessel in search of more food, and probably, also, to look after the two men left there and to plant seeds for future increase. He sailed June 20, 1610, according to his own letter, but June 19th according to others. He was accompanied by another vessel, but they were delayed by fogs and storms and the latter returned to Virginia, but Somers kept on. Thus the passage was much prolonged, the admiral became ill from the hardships and exposure, and died at St. George's, Xov. 9th. His heart was buried there by his request, but his body was taken to England by his disheartened crew, who, contrary to his orders, Avould not return to Virginia. But thev left three men behind on the islands, perhaps to keep nominal possession, and very likely in accordance with final instructions given by Somers, though that is not stated. It is related that Christopher Carter, who had previ- ously been left there by Somers, declared that he would not desert A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 545 the islands, though all the others should, and that this induced two others to volunteer to stay behind with him.* Very likely he had promised the admiral to stay and take care of his plantation, which there is good reason for supposing he had started immediately after his arrival, perhaps early in July. We find no record of the nature of his illness, beyond the intimation that it was due to exposure, nor of what was done during the four months before he died, though Capt. Smith intimated that Somers was not idle here. c. — The Settlement of the Bermuda Islands in 1612. The Bermuda Company was soon organized in London, and the first ship, the " Plough," with Governor Richard Mooref and about 60 colonists, was sent out in May, 1612, arriving there July 11th. On their arrival at Bermuda, Governor Moore and his company found the three men that had been left there, two years before, well and in excellent condition, though destitute of clothes. They had an acre of corn ready to harvest, and other food in abundance, and had built a cedar house and a boat. They were anxious to sail away, however, and had commenced to build a vessel. Probably they doubted if the pinnace had ever reached England ; or if so, whether another would come for them. Perhaps it was partly due to the fact that they had discovered an enormous mass of ambergris, weighing about 180 pounds and worth about $32,000.00, which they naturally wished to secure for themselves, but which the governor very soon took from them. He punished one of them by imprison- ment for three years for trying to conceal it. (See p. 517.) They must have been supplied with seeds and instructions for their cultivation by Admiral Somers, before he died, for their sub- sequent history shows that they were men of no great ability or knowledge. It is stated that he had actually planned to start a plantation there, even if he had to do it at his own cost. Somerset was named for him, probably because he had selected it for a plan- tation. The anonymous writer of 1612 (Governor Moore?) also says that they had planted " corne, great store of wheate, Beanes, Tobacco, and melones, with many other good things for the use of man," and * The other men were Edward Chard and Edward Waters ; the latter had previously been left on the islands with Carter. In 1616, he and Carter were two of the Deputy Governors, but neither proved efficient in that capacity. f His name was often written More, but in the official commission from the London Company it is spelled Moore. Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XL 35 May, 1902. 546 A. II. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. that they had also sawed and hewed timber, intending to build a vessel, in which to sail away. In another place he says that " they have made a great deale of Tobacco." It is narrated by Governor Butler, by Capt. John Smith, and the Rev. Mr. Hughes, that when the prospective settlers arrived at the islands in 1612, they found that these men* had "an acre of good corne [wheat, according to Mr. Hughesjf ripe and ready for the gatherour; numbers of pompions [pumpkins], Indian beanes, many tortoises ready taken, good store of hogge-flesh salted and made into flitches of bacon." Therefore the actual first planting of the islands was begun by Somers, or by these three pioneer men, in 1610. Very likely they planted many other things, not mentioned here by name. There is a very important document, quoted above, relating to this * One of these men, Christopher Carter, had also remained on the islands during the absence of Somers in Virginia. He was later (1616) one of the six deputy governors appointed by Moore to rule by turns of a month each, but he was an indolent ruler, too fond of his cups. Subsequently he visited London, and, as is said by some, turned over to the Company another mass of ambergris. Governor Butler said that it was to demand his reward for finding the orig- inal mass, and that that he had begun to take " dangerous courses," perhaps to expose frauds in connection with the large mass of ambergris. However, the Company gave him a "royal lease" to Cooper's Island, by which he was entitled to all valuables or royalties that might be found there, including ambergris, which was certainly a remarkable concession, at that time. Governor Butler said that it was in '• exchange for three lives," intimating that it was to induce him not to expose the frauds of prominent members of the Company. His acceptance or choice of Cooper's Island was explained later, by his heirs, to have been because he believed he could find the Spanish trea- sures, supposed to be buried there, from tablets and marks found on certain trees. (See under Yellow-wood Tree, ch. 26.) He returned with the lease in 1622, and died before 1627, when the land passed into the possession of Capt. Folgate, who actually found a lump of ambergris there, in 1627. and claimed it as his own, which led to an investigation of the royal lease. (See p. 517, note.) Governor Butler considered Carter " a great foole," and thought that he had been badly cheated in accepting Cooper's Island, but perhaps he was ignorant of the clause concerning the royalties. The island contains 77 acres, but is not very fertile. f Perhaps Hughes considered the Indian Corn a variety of " wheat," for writ- ing in 1614, he said ; " And now that we have found out the right seasons of the yeare to set corne. we are like, (by the blessinge of God) to have plenty of this eountrey wheate, which is very good, large and faire, and more hearty and strong than our English wheate." This remark would seem to apply to the Indian corn or maize, which was then hardly known in England. "Wheat does not grow well in Bermuda. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. ."U7 voyage and the conditions then existing at the islands, but the name of the writer is unknown. This narrative, or rather report, concern- ing the islands and their productions, was written at Bermuda, in 1612, just before the return of the "Plough." The writer was, in my opinion, Governor Moore hirnsejf. This is indicated by the business-like style of the document itself ; by the statement that " Hastie occasione of business doth make mee write somewhat hastilie, etc. " ; by the remark that " Ave sent out for Hogges"; and "but our order is not to take Fish or Fowle, but for one or two meales, because that by reason of the flies, and heate of the countrey they will not keep "; and by the fact that he does not in any other way refer to any acts or orders of the governor, nor mention him by name or title, as any subordinate person would have been sure to have done. He does not say that the governor ordered this or that, in any case. The whole character of the paper indicates that the writer was the leader and the one in authority. His lucid descriptions of the trees and their timber indicates his expert or professional knowledge of such matters, but Governor Moore had been educated as a master carpenter. It is apparently the first official report of the Governor to the Company, written rather hastily, owing to the pressure of numerous official duties, cares, and details incident to the first settlement. If my conclusion be true, it will add somewhat to the value and importance of this report, for it is one of the most detailed of the early accounts, in several respects.* I shall, therefore, hereafter speak of it as Governor Moore's Report of 1612. Gover- nor Moore was a very conscientious and reliable man, with more education and brains than most of his colleagues, and the character of this useful report is in keeping with his personalit}\ Governor Butler (1619) said of Governor Moore "although he was but a Carpenter, he was an excellent Artist, a good Gunner, very witty and industrious ; he built and laid the foundations of eight or nine Forts, called the Kings Castle, Charles Fort, Pem- brookes Fort, Smiths Fort, AVarwicks Castle, Saint Katherines Fort, &c, mounting in them all the Ordnance he had, preparing the ground to build Houses, plant Come, and such fruits as they had." The " forts " built at that time were of cedar wood, but the rock had to be cut away in order to make level places for the gun plat- forms. All the labor had to be done by hand, for they had no beasts of burden, nor machinery. * This report was printed in full by Governor Lefroy, in his Memorials of the Bermudas, i, pp. 65-72, 1877, but without suggestions as to the authorship. 548 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. So much of the time and labor of the people was required for this fortification work that the planting of corn and other crops was too much neglected, so that a famine ensued in the winter of 1614-1615, though this was probably not the only cause of it. Drought and tempests had intervened to destroy their crops in 1613. The Lon- don Company was chiefly to blame for this lack of food, for they required of Mr. Moore, above all else, that he should fortify the place at once, but they did not send out sufficient supplies of any kind. As in many other colonization schemes, there was too much ignorance, cupidity, and gross mismanagement on the part of the Company. The " Elisabeth," with 30 colonists, arrived next, about March, 1613; the "Martha" arrived in June, 1613, with about 00 passen- gers. The "Elisabeth " brought 40 more passengers in September, 1013,* and also the first potato roots. Tobacco was also planted in 1613, but it had been raised in 1610 and 1611 by the men left there. The population, in 1022, as stated by Governor Butler, was 1500, but he may not have included the women and children. In 102!), it was said by Capt. John Smith to have been between 2,000 and 3,000. The colonists began at once to cut down and burn the forests of cedar and palmetto, not only in order to clear the land for planting, but for building fortifications, for firewood, and for other purposes. Governor Moore almost immediately began to fortify the hills and islands near St. George's, as instructed by the Company and con- firmed by a special vessel, sent out only six months later to warn him of the expected war with Spain and a probable attack on the islands. This compulsion to build forts before houses, and to mount cannon before planting corn, kept the settlers from planting as much corn and other edibles as they should have done, both at this time and in later years. Their first crop of corn was good, according to Hughes (1014), * The sending out of these earlier vessels at such unusually short intervals was mainly due to the desire of the Company to l'eceive the exceedingly large and valuable mass of ambergris, weighing about 180 pounds, that the three men that had been left on the islands for two years had found (see pp. 517, 546), and which, at about that time, was valued at 3 pounds sterling to the ounce. Governor Moore discreetly divided the mass into three parts, and would only send one portion at a time. As each vessel brought additional supplies, of which they were greatly in need, this course was very beneficial to the people, although it displeased the London Company, for they cai'ed only or chiefly for immediate gain, and wished to cause a rapid rise in the price of the stock of the Company. A. E. Verritt — The Bermuda Islands. 549 though planted too late (they arrived in July). But he states that their second crop was nearly a failure. This may have been due partly to the neglect of planting at the proper time, on account of the pressing need of fortification work, and partly to the lack of care later ; but the season may have been a bad one, with drouths or tempests, and the Wood Rats may have been present, even then.* Besides, they were mostly ignorant and quite inexperienced, both as to the crops and the climate. But whatever the cause, it is evi- dent that the Company did very wrong to send out, during the first years, so many ignorant and ill-provided poor people, taken largely from the slums of London, expecting them to clear a densely wooded country, plant crops, and build forts and houses, all in one year. The governor had on his hands more than any man could do, with the men and materials at his disposal. It is remarkable that he succeeded by his energy and wit in keep- ing the colony alive. In fact, had not nature provided such an abundance of birds and fish, at that time, most of the people would surely have starved. It was by mere chance that a stray vessel, the Edwin, loaded with meal, came to the islands from the West Indies, in the middle of their second winter (about January, 1014), when they were on the verge of starvation. This was the vessel said to have introduced the wood-rats. (See Part III, ch. 33.) The following extract is from "A Plaine and true relation of the Goodnes of God towards the Sommer Islands," London, 1621 (writ- ten in the latter part of 1620). Mr. Hughes lived in Bermuda from 1615 to 1620. After a visit to London, he returned on the "Joseph " in 1622 :— " Upon your second crop, (partly for the unthankfulnesse of some, and partly for the trial of other some) God denied his blessing, so as you received not your seede againe, therefore feare of great want came upon you Then, even then when your hearts began to be troubled with feare of want, Almighty God who never faileth nor forsaketh them that are his, did send you a comfortable supply unlooked for."f * It is not improbable that the unsuspected ravages of wood rats were the chief causes of the failure of the crops in all these three earlier years, though they did not attract attention till 1615, when they had apparently greatly increased, perhaps largely due to their gathering, for food, in the vicinity of the cultivated land. There is no sufficient evidence that they were first introduced in 1614. (Seech. 33, ft.) f This is a refei^ence to the " runaway frigate " which came loaded with meal from the West Indies, and was said to have also brought the wood-rats, January, 1614. 550 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. The wild hogs and birds were rapidly destroyed by the famished people. Another famine occurred in the third winter (1614-1615), when 150 starving people were colonized temporarily on Cooper's Island to feed on the cahow and its eggs, which they nearly exter- minated that season. (See history of the Cahow, Part III, ch. 29.) A gi'eat curse to the colony, from the first, was the large amount of liquors sent out on every vessel, for many years, by the Company, in order, apparently, to exchange it, at high pi-ices, for the half- shares of tobacco that belonged to the cultivators. Many of the colonists were taken from the lowest classes of people in London, and drunkenness was prevalent among these and others, whenever, by any means, they could secure liquors of any kind.* Such condi- tions were not confined to Bermuda, nor to that particular time, but in this case the Company could have controlled it, had they chosen to do so, for a long series of years. Governor Butler and other early governors denounced the custom in the strongest terms, as did some of the clergymen, but it was continued and gave rise to vari- * The Eev. Mr. Hughes, writing in 1620, alludes to this as follows : " My heart giveth rne, that among other sinnes, the abominable sinne of Drunkennesse, that aboundeth among you every shipping time did much favour the bringing of that judgement upon her, [the ship] to admonish some to bee no longer Bawds to Drunkennesse by sending over so much Aqua vitas." ... "In Summerset you know how one died suddenly with drinking himself dead drunke." ..." Also in the Towne at St. Georges, a man of Summerset drunke himself dead drunke, and beeing by a Coroner's Inquest found guilty of his owne death, was by the commandment of Captaine Butler your Governour, buried in the highway with a stake driven through him, by them in whose company he dranke himself dead. Each of them having a paper on his backe with this superscription : ' These are the companions of him which killed himselfe with drinking.'' Two of the most notorious of them were punished, the one whipped at the Whipping Post, the other (because he was a soldier) did ride the Cannon, shot off full charged, which did shake him terribly." "Forget not the Boats of Summerset that were over-turned with the keele upward, and some of the men drowned, because they that should guide them, were troubled in their braines with Aqua vitae." Governor Butler thus describes the drinking habits of the people, in 1620 : — "And, indeed, it is incredibly straunge to report what a huge quantitie of thes hott composed waters are (mis) spent yearely in these smale Hands. Will it ever be believed (in England it selfe, which is yet too neere akinne to Ger- many in this ; in Spaine and Italy certainely it can never) that twelve hundred persons (whereof the one half e almost are women and children, and soe noe drinckers in this nature) should in three months space only, consume and emptye two thousand gallons of this hartburneinge geare, bypowreinge it downe into their vast mawes ? And yet this is the least that (truely) can be sayd of it." A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 551 ous crimes, and at times to disgraceful orgies, even on the part of the principal officers, in 1615-1616, and many misfortunes ensued. Governor Moore, instead of receiving praise and encouragement from the Company, was criticised, blamed, and censured by them, so that he gave up his position, shortly before his term of three years expired, in 1615, and turned the government over to six deputy gov- ernors, most of whom proved worthless fellows and drunkards, though they were the "best that were there." He returned to London, deeply in debt and in disgrace, and never had much justice done him. He had to live in hiding, in an obscure street of London, for some time, to avoid arrest for debts.* The next year (1615-1616) was a year of strange misrule, revelry, debauchery, and idleness on the part of the deputy-governors, their officers, and the people generally. It was also, at this time, that the plague of Wood Rats developed with remarkable rapidity. No tobacco of any consequence was made and little of other crops. Governor Daniel Tucker, who was sent over in 1616, found every- thing in the greatest confusion and the jDeople utterly demoralized by a year of disgraceful revelry and misrule. It needed a man of energy and stern will to put the colony into any sort of order. Governor Tucker, though a man of not much education, with a very irascible temper, and not always with good judgment, was, perhaps, a very suitable man for the time and place. His arbitrary acts, and to us apparently arbitrary executions of crim- inals for minor crimes, may have been based on personal knowledge of their character and deeds that is not apparent from the records. Some of Governor Daniel Tucker'sf fortification work and trials have been described in a previous chapter (p. 447). He came with an elaborate commission from the Bermuda Company, which confer- red on him far greater legal power than Governor Moore had held. At the time of his arrival the Wood Rats had become exceedingly abundant, so that they destroyed all the crops, and they continued to increase during the next two years, in spite of all his efforts to suppress them. (See Introduced Mammals, ch. 33, b.) * Although Governor Butler intimated that there was some great fraud or secret scandal, known to Carter, in connection with the ambergris, it is evi- dent that Governor Moore, himself, had no benefit from it, for he lived in poverty after his return to London. The Company finally gave him six shares of land for his services. But I find no evidence that he went back there to live. \ Governor Tucker returned to Bermuda and lived several years on the land conveyed to him by the Company. He died there in 1625. 552 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. One of his measures was to burn over large districts, and some- times whole islands, thus destroying all tbe trees and other vegeta- tion, as well as the rats. (See below, cb. 26, b.) Fortunately, in the winter of 1618-19, the rats suddenly died, all within a few days, as the Rev. Mr. Huo-hes stated. Tbis averted a " general burninge " of all tbe Main Island, that Governor Tucker bad decided to order. In the meantime tbe people had become much impoverished and bread had sometimes been lacking for many months at a time. Governor Butler,* 1619 to 1622, who was an able man and also a discreet governor, tried to restrain tbe reckless cutting of the trees, which had eVen then become a great evil, and the wanton destruc- tion of the birds and sea-turtles, but with no great success. He also greatly enlarged and improved the fortifications, and built cedar bridges between tbe islands, which were much needed. Even in bis time, most of tbe land on St. George's Island had been stripped of its trees and become barren. d. — The Fatal Famine of 1674-15 ; the " Feauges:'' In the winter of 1614-1615 there was a peculiar fatal famine or disease, apparently due to the lack of bread-stuffs and other ordinary * Most that is known of the history of the islands, from 1612 to 1622, is derived from his MSS "Historye of the Bermudaes" printed by the Hakluyt Society, London, 1882, edited by Governor Lefroy. The editor, when it was pnblished, supposed that it was written by Capt. John Smith, but it has since been proved that it was written by Governor Butler (see " The Academy,"' Dec, 24, 1892, p. 891). The earlier part, from internal evidence, was written in 1619 ; the last parts, perhaps as late as 1624 or 25. Governor Butler's accounts are confirmed by those of the Rev. Mr. Hughes (1621), who lived in Bermuda at the same period. Capt. John Smith, in his General History of Virginia, etc., 1624, made copious and often verbatim extracts from Governor Butler's Historye, without giving any credit for this information, nor in any way referring to its source. As this was done during the life of Governor Butler, it is probable that it was with his knowledge and most likely in accordance with his wishes, for it would appear that at that time he had private reasons for not wishing to be known as the author of this work, which was left unfinished at his death. Many of the persons that he exposed and censured were still living and in influential positions. Governor Butler, like Governor Moore, never got much praise or thanks for all his good efforts in Bermuda, but was blamed for obeying his orders and doing his duty, and falsely accused of many things that he did not do. He certainly did not enrich himself, but was much in debt on his return. Governor Lefroy states that he was subsequently made Governor of [Old] Provi- dence, about 1638. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 553 vegetable food, although animal food was abundant. This affected chiefly the ignorant, indolent, and vicious persons who had been sent there only a short time before by the Company. The Rev. Mr. Hughes, who was present as an eye-witness, described it in 1620, as follows : " Your looking for more supplies out of Eng- land, and following Tobacco to greedily, did cause you to neglect setting of corne, whereby you were brought into great want, [1615]. Then the number of people encreasing and as they encreased, sin and disorder did also encrease, which brought the correcting hand of God upon you in many wayes, so as divers did perish miserably : but consider I pray you that most of them that so dyed, were ungodly, slothfull and heartlesse men, which sheweth plainly thai God hath not reserved these Hands from the beginning of the world, to bestowe them now upon such as shall dishonor and provoke him every day as many of them did, I cannot but wonder, when I think upon the nastinesse & loathsome lazinesse, wherein too many of them died, crying night and day for meat, notwithstanding they had meat enough, if not too much, for they did nothing night and day but dresse, and eate, and so greedy, as they would not stay till their meate was sod ; but more like dogges than Christians did devoure it blood rawe." * * * * * " They died miserably, some with meate in their mouthes crying for more. This surely was a great jugement of God upon those slothful and greedy Belly-gods and a manifest signe and token (as I said even now) that God hath not reserved these Hands from the beginning of the world till now to bestow them upon such as shall provoke him eveiy day, as many of them did. The correcting hand of God, which then lay heaviest upon the lazie ones, did stretch out itselfe over all, even the most industrious, when their Lines, Hooks and Nets were worne out, so as many of them also died/"' It seems, therefore, that it was a case of " Natural Selection," or survival of the fittest, and probably was, on the whole, a blessing to the Colony, though other similar emigrants, quite as bad, were sent out subsequently, in 1619-20. (See p. 567.) In regard to the cause of the death of so many of the miserable people at that time, there ma} r be some doubt. There can be no doubt, however, that it was largely due, directly or indirectly, to the lack of suitable vegetable food, for of bread there was none. But there seems to have been an abundance of animal food, for the cahows and their eggs were still abundant, and there were plenty of fish to be had, with little trouble, as well as shell-fish on the rocks. 554 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. Hughes and Butler, as well as Captain Smith, all speak of the gluttony and la'ziness of these emigrants, and affirm that large num- bers died of surfeit, rather than from hunger, for the cahow was a very fat bird. Governor Moore was compelled to remove the crowd of 150 from Cooper's Island, where they were killing them- selves by gormandizing the birds and eggs, to Port Royal, where they could get fish. But they were too indolent to do that, and secretly killed and ate the few cattle that had just before been sent there. He eventually had to gather them all at St. George's, and fish for them himself, to save their miserable lives, and that of others more deserving. They seem to have been affected with some sort of a disease, which Capt. John Smith called the "Feauges." But this may have been induced by the exclusively animal diet and their gluttony. Possibly it was akin to scurvy. Hughes stated that none of the sixty original colonists died at that time. This may have been due to their having laid up some supplies of vegetable food, like dried or preserved palmetto fruits, pumpkins, etc., or they may have learned by experience to eat the Palmetto-heads and other native vegetable food, to a great extent. That these native vegetable foods could take the place of cereals and other ordinary crops, without loss of health, was proved a little later, 1616-17, when it is stated that the colonists had no bread for about two years, on account of the ravages of the wood-rats. Capt. Smith described the " Feauges " as follows : " He [Gov. Moore] followed the building of these Forts so earnestly, neglecting planting of Corne, till their store was neere all consumed, whereby they became- so feeble and weake, some would not, others could not goe abroad to seeke releefe, but starved in their houses ; and many that were abroad, through weaknesse were subject to be suddenly surprised with a disease called the Feauges, which was neither paine nor sicknesse, but as it were the highest degree of weaknesse, depriving them of power and ability from the execution of any bodily exercises, whether it were working, walking, or what else ; being thus taken, if any presently gave them food, many times they straight recovered, yet some after a little rest would be able to walke, but if they found not present succour, died." Various other details of the early history, from 16] 2 to 1625, have already been given in connection with descriptions of the ancient fortifications in Part I, and productions in Part II, ch. 22. Many other historical matters will be given in connection with the 'lis- A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 555 cussion of the Cultivation of Tobacco, and changes in the vege- tation and animal life, contained in the following five chapters, and more especially in connection with Deforesting and the Extermination of the Cahow, etc. So much of the early history of the colony was directly dependent on the production of tobacco, which was the principal article of export for over seventy years, that it seems most desirable to describe the Tobacco Cultivation historically, in the next chapter. (See also p. 518.) e. — Tobacco Cultivation, as connected with the Early History of the Islands. It has been doubted whether the Tobacco plant was growing upon the islands before it was planted by the English, but Silas Jourdan, one of Admiral Somers' shipwrecked party, distinctly stated, in 1610, that they found there "very good tobacco." If so, it was probably introduced, like the wild olives and the hogs, by some unknown earlier visitors. The first that was cultivated was planted in 1610, by the three men left on the islands from 1610 to 1612, for in his report of 1612, Gov- ernor Moore stated that those men had " made a great deale tobacco," among other useful products. Planting it on a larger scale began in 1613. Froni that time until about 1690 it was the principal commodity exported, but its culture entirely ceased about 1707. During more than sixty years it was also used as the regular currency, in barter, and for paying the wages* and salaries, from that of the government officials down to the cheap- est laborers. Fines and taxes were also paid in tobacco. The value varied, but 2 s and 6 d was commonly the value per pound, up to about 1627. * An act was passed by the Assembly in 1623 regulating the prices of labor. The wages of a laborer or toiler was to be no more than 1 lb. of tobacco per day ; of a mason or carpenter 2 lbs. ; for sawing lumber the price was to be 3 lbs. of tobacco per 100 feet. If any craftsman should refuse to work when called upon to do so, and when not already employed, or if he should leave a job before it was properly completed, he was to be put in the stocks, or else caged. This law was reenacted in 1627. It was found necessary because these crafts- men had refused to do their work unless jjaid exorbitant prices, thus making a corner in the labor market of the islands. Or it might be compared to a "strike" where substitutes could not be found in trades absolutely essential to the welfare of the public. In 1630, it was ordained that 12 lbs. of tobacco should be equal in value to 1,000 ears of corn. 556 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. Wages at the islands were paid in tobacco at the rate of 3 d per pound in 1670, which was probably more than its net value, after the imposts were paid in London. The revenue from the tobacco was the main source of profit to the Bermuda Company, and they jealously guarded the monopoly of the trade in it during the entire period that they controlled the islands, or up to 1684.* The quantity and quality varied exceedingly in different years, from a variety of causes, but the Company annually and continually complained of its bad quality. Stringent laws were in force for many years requiring careful inspection of all the tobacco by official inspectors before it was shipped, and the bad tobacco was to be immediately burned. Apparently the dampness of the climate was unfavorable for the proper curing of the tobacco, and in wet seasons much of it rotted. In some years the growing tobacco was badly damaged or destroyed by violent storms. This is recorded as occur- ring in August, 1020, 1651, 1668, and in other years. Probably all the autumnal hurricanes had this effect. Doubtless many of the growers were neither skillful nor careful in the art of curing, but the storms and other natural causes were important factors. On the other hand, in some seasons the crop was large and the quality good. I have been unable to find any record of fertilizers of any kind being imported or used during all these years. Probably nothing was used except a small amount of barnyard manure, and perhaps in some cases, seaweed and dead fishes. The domestic animals were few, and the cattle do not require housing in winter, so that such manure must have been scarce and little used. * A law making the stealing of tobacco plants a felony, punishable with death, was passed in 1623 : — "And be yt ennacted by the same, that if any p. son or p. sons shall at any tyine or tymes hereafter enter into or upon the lands or grounds of any other person or p. sons w th in the Island, aforesaid where any Tobacco or plants thereof shal be planted or growinge and shall there steale, drawe, plucke up, gather or carrye away any Tobacco or Tobacco plants against the good will or without the special lycense and consent of the owner of the same land, and be thereof law- fully convicted, that then every p. son soe offending shal be held and reputed a fellon and shall suffer death for the same, as for any other fellonious deed, Any Act, law, usage or Custom to the contrary thereof in any wise notwithstanding." This law was so modified, in 1627, that the thief was to be fined 200 pounds of tobacco, or if an apprentice, he was to be whipped : and in addition, in either case, he was to stand at the church door, during services, with a bunch of tobacco plants hanging from his neck, on three successive Sabbath days. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 551 Therefore, it is remarkable that any respectable crops of such an exhaustive plant as tobacco could have been raised on the same land for so long a time. It is certain, however, that the fertility of the soil had very much decreased before tobacco culture was abandoned (abont 1707). But in the meantime Virginia and other American colonies had become great tobacco-growing countries (about 1626) and produced a better quality, so that the prices of the island pro- duct had fallen to such an extent that the Bermudians could not compete with any profit. In 1027 it was worth about I s 10 d in Lou- don. It was finally sold at 3 d per pound in 1670. For more than a hundred years after this culture was given up, the agriculture of the islands was very much diminished, though the raising of corn, oranges, potatoes, onions, and other products for export still con- tinued to some extent. The early agriculture was doubtless very simple and imperfect. Scarcely any implements except the grub- bing hoes were in use. Plows were practically unknown until 1839, when their use was urged and introduced to some extent by Gover- nor Reid. In Governor Tucker's time, about 1618, -i0,000 pounds of tobacco Avere shipped in one year. In 1620, 70,000 pounds were shipped by the "Joseph." In later years 200,000 pounds were often shipped. In 1671 one vessel is said to have carried away 250,000 pounds. In 1679 the officers of the Company stated that the annual value was about £5,000 sterling, but at that time the price per pound was very low. One year it is stated that it brought only l^ d per pound. Owing to the increasing production of tobacco in Virginia and the West Indies, and the excessive freight and duties levied upon the Bermuda product, the price rapidly fell from 2 s 6 d to about 9 d or less per pound between 1626 and 1630. At first the duty was I s per pound ; in 1623 it was 9 d ; in 162S it was 6 d . The duty and freight were often more than it would bring in the London market, so that the more the colonists raised the poorer they became. Although they raised an abundance of corn, potatoes, fruit, poultry, and other food, they had no commodities with which to buy goods from Eng- land, such as clothing, so that they became very destitute of clothing and many other necessities of life, though food was plenty.* * The destitution in clothing, etc., caused by the decrease in the price of tobacco and the high duty on it, is graphically described in letters from Governor Roger Wood, written in 1632. The following extract is from one of these : — " To Mr. Ballene I referr the i - eporte of his voyage, usage and affection on this very poore Island, only for lacke of Canvasse shirts and shoes and such things 558 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. At that time there were no textile materials raised there with which they could have made cloth, even if they had the skill. How- ever, they did plant hempseed and flaxseed, in 1032 and 1633, and subsequently some cotton. But later (1644) they sent a ship to Barbadoes to trade for cotton and it brought back a cargo of 11,018 pounds of cotton, which the women and girls learned to spin. The duty on tobacco was reduced to 6 d a pound, in consequence of urgent petitions in 102 7, but even then it was not remunerative under the conditions imposed by the Company. The colonists were forbidden to trade with the other American colonies, even for neces- sary things, nor could they trade with any ships except those sent by the Company. Yet they were compelled to do so in order to live at all, and so we find records of cargoes of potatoes, oranges, etc., sent to New England at that time. On the other hand, the Company continually complained of the poor quality of the tobacco sent to them; but those planters who occupied the public lands on half- shares complained that the Company would not pay for any part of the labor necessary to properly cure even their own share, and con- sequently much was spoiled for lack of sufficient help at the critical time. The difficulties connected with the making of tobacco, especially on the plan of half-shares, are well described in the following extract from a letter sent by the Assembly, in 1027, to the Bermuda Com- pany, in reply to a letter from the Company, dated Sept. 20th, 1626 complaining of the poor quality of the Bermuda tobacco, as con- trasted with that from Virginia and St. Christopher's I., and also requiring them to return to the system of cultivation at one-half gross shares for the Company, as was customary for tenants in England : as will cloathe us from surme and cold nights I thank god wee abound wth vitualls in varietye and plentie both flesh and fish, rootes and fruits, so that wee excell all the plantacons in the kings dominions, and wee desire to undertake any travell and labour if wee had a subject to worke upon to cloathe ourselves, but it is our miserie to live in these tymes that the more wee labour the more wee are undone through the extreame ympost laid upon our goods, wc'h exceeds the value of the commoditie, a thing without precedent and never before heard of. I pray God amend yt and send us help from heaven for on earth I see but little hope." He sent a present of some tobacco to which he referred as follows, in a post- script : — " I beseech you vouchsafe the tasting of oiir poore Burmoodian Tobaeo wch is 2d worse than nothing the pound." A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 559 " But wee most humbly iutreate you to conceive in this (as the schools distinguish the like Similitudo non curritt quatuor Pedibus, many things may be alike, but not alike in all things; for there is as much difference betweene a husbandman's sowing of wheate to halves in England, and planting Tobacco at halves in Somer Islands, as is betwixt black and white. The husbandman hath his hand ready for the plough, and his houses built ; wee noe such thing, He hath bis beasts of labor to plough his land, wee none but our hands, his wheate beeing sowen his labor and charge is little or none till har- vest, ours is daylie and hourely, his crop being housed his care and charge is ended, then is our care greatest and our danger most, yea of so tickle and dangerous a nature is this Tobacco, in the house, that one houres neglect or the least want of helpe may spoyle a whole yeares cropp, neither is it in the power of man to prevent it when it is come to that passe, soe that the comparison in theise respects (and many others that might be alleadged) will never hold, besides many yong youthes are now out of their tymes, and yerely more wil be. And if they should not be hyred what should become of them. There hath been care taken to make publique tennants of them for improving the publique lands, thereby to defray the pub- lique charge we'h can now bee noe further helpe, because that the publique lands are now all disposed of to the best behoofe, Soe that they must be hyred or they will live of the spoyle." ^c % % % # ^c ^r " Our governor bath been pleased to make known unto us that it is yor wills that yo'r severall tenn'ts should be very carefull in mak- ing and curing of tobacco in the house, it is true that in that care, and the tymely and opportune making up consists the greatest diffi- culty, but if you take from us our former allowance of that charge, great inconvenience may arise mauger the endeavors of the most endustrious, for when a season of weather serves to make up tobacco, that man comonly that hath most helpe doth make the best tobacco, we'll if he pay all the making up out of his own pte. all men will strive to make it up with his owne family without hyring, and soe if the season be over before it be dispatched and that the wind come to north, west-north, north east, or at east we'll is comon, all the remaynder may be spoyled." After the Bermuda Company ceased to exist, in 1684, the cultiva- tion of tobacco rapidly declined, and was abandoned after 1 7< > 7. Agricultural pursuits of all kinds decreased, with the exception of raising oranges, which flourished for more than a century. The 5G0 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. change in the laws and administration, and the loss of income from tobacco, caused a great increase in maritime pursuits, and conse- quently in shipbuilding. During the 18th century the Bermudians engaged largely in the intercolonial commerce, and in the manufac- ture and exportation of salt from Turk's Island, and they pursued the sea-turtle fishery as far south as Ascension Island, and there traded with foreign vessels. During that period large numbers of vessels were built of Bermuda cedar, often 10 to 12 annually. This led to another period of deforesting. Probably most of the cedar used at that time was the second growth cedar that had grown up where the original growth had been cut down in the early period, to plant tobacco, for the Bermuda cedar, in good soil, grows fast enough to make good timber in thirty to forty years. /'. — Slavery : Negroes ; Indians ; Whites. Abolition of Slavery in 183^. Slavery prevailed in the Bermudas from 1610, or earlier, up to 1834, when it was abolished. Owing to the comparatively small size of the estates, none of the planters held any considerable num- ber, and in general the slaves seem to have been well treated,* as compared with those in other colonies, though at times severe local laws were passed for their control. During most of the history they exceeded the whites in number. Their money value was not large and many bought their freedom, or were voluntarily freed by their owners, who were not always able to feed and clothe them properly. But for a long series of years, free colored persons were not allowed to remain on the islands beyond a specified timef (six months or a year). * Several instances are recorded where slaves captured on Bermuda vessels in time of war and taken to foreign countries voluntarily returned to their owners in Bermuda, when they might have had their liberty. In one such case eighty slaves taken on a Bermuda privateer, during the Revolutionary war, were taken to Boston and offered their liberty, but all except one, who died, returned to their owners. In 1828, two vessels manned by eleven slaves as sailors, arrived in Ireland, and the slaves were officially offered their freedom and protection, but only three, who were mere boys, accepted freedom. f The following law was enacted by the Company in 1662 : " Ff or the preventing the mischief e & danger which otherwise -is like to happen by the multyplication of malattoes. Wee have Ordered that from henceforth if any malatto shall bee made free, such p'son doe within twelve months after depart the Islands." In 1704, the time that free negroes could remain was made six months. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 561 In consequence of conspiracies or fear of insurrections, many free negroes were banished after 1650. In November, 1656, all free negroes were ordered banished at once. A proclamation of Gover- nor Seymour, on July 26, 1664, ordered that all able-bodied free negroes and mulattoes should forthwith depart from the islands, with Capt. Stow, on a ship then ready to sail (destination not recorded). Those that did not do so were to become slaves to the Company, in all respects like slaves purchased. A law was enacted in 1674, that any colored persons brought to the islands and remain- ing more than 24 hours should be seized and made slaves to the Company. The first colored slaves, one negro and one Indian, were brought from the Bahamas by the "Edwin," in 1616. Fourteen negroes were said to have been brought to Bermuda in 1616, by a pirate vessel, and sold there. From that time forward both negroes and Indian slaves were repeatedly brought from the West Indies. In March, 1660, the " Elisabeth and Annie " brought in 32 negroes from Barbadoes. They were sometimes captured from the Spanish or Dutch, and sometimes the}' were purchased. Capt. John Wentworth, a priva- teer, in 1665, captured about 90 slaves from the Dutch Governor of Tortola and took them to Bermuda. In Bermuda the climate and other conditions were favorable for their natural increase, and before ] 700 they even became too numerous. Governor Butler, in 1622, referred to his "gang" of negroes, indi- cating their rapid increase in five or six years. In January, 1623, 14 negroes were mentioned as belonging to the "generality," and others t<> individuals. By that time they had, apparently, become numer- ous, for in that year an act was passed by the Assembly to "Restrayne the insolencies of Negroes," by which they were for- bidden to carry weapons or to be out at night except by order of their masters, who were to be held responsible for thefts, etc., com- mitted by their slaves. In February, 1629, it is recorded that Lieut. Buckley was allowed 32 slaves, and this was the regular number allowed the Governors for many years. The following extract from one of the letters of Governor Roger Wood to the Company, in 1632, gives some idea of their numbers, at that time, and of their relatively small value, for he intimates that he had more than he wanted, or could clothe: " And to the extent you shall see that I am not destitute of this Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XI. 36 May, 1902. 562 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. blacke crewe during my government, I think it fitt in this place to show you a catalogue of your negroes, men, woemen, and children, ten children and three women, lyving upon my charge, for they doe little else than to looke to theire children, for no man wil be troubled with them ; neither doe I desyre recompense for the same, neither will I, so long as 3-011 cloathe them as most nobly you have done this yeare, w'ch I will cause to be husbanded soe that you shall not be deceived herein. This clothing and linen will serve I hope for next yeare also ; as for this, I have put out 3 of them to masters, and after the cloathing of these will put out some others when I can fynd such masters as will be careful for their education." .... " Altogether 8 men negroes, among w'ch ould Anthonio is past service, 4 woemen negroes, and 13 children." Besides this, he pro- ceeds : — " I want 7 servants of my complete number, which I am not pressing to bee supplyed withall, as not beeing able to cloath these." The following quaint record indicates the current value of negro women slaves in 1648, and the condition of the morals then prevail- ing among them. It also indicates that the Bermudiaus were willing to cheat the Spaniards, in a trade, if they could. But perhaps the woman was a sea-cook, at least : "It was consented by the Gou'r and some of the councell that Mr. Sherriffe should sell Blacke Moll* one of the Company's negroes for their use, shee beinge a lazie servant and a lewde liver. Mr. Sherriffe accordingly did sell her to the Spaniards, for sixteene pounds sterling." There are many records of the lack of employment for slaves, and of their idleness. At a later period more or less of them were some- times sold to American planters, because they could not be profitably employed in Bermuda. Yet many of the more intelligent of the young negroes were apprenticed to learn trades, and many became good sailors. Although the negroes were often accused of, and punished for theft and many other crimes, they seem to have rarely been guilty of murder or manslaughter. Whipping was the common punishment. Some colored men, who had been condemned to be hanged, were * Another "Black Moll," in June, 165'2. was convicted of stealing various ai'ticles (value 7 sh ) from two dwellings, and sentenced to be hanged. But she was reprieved on condition that she would act as the executioner, to which she agreed. She commenced by hanging a man named Worth, July 14. 1652, who was, apparently, a white man. and one who deserved hanging. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 563 given their lives if they would become executioners.* Sometimes, for minor offences, free negroes were condemned to become slaves to the Company. This penalty was also applied, on at least one occasion, to a white man by Gov. Tucker. By a law enacted in 1668, inter- marriage of whites with coloi-ed persons or mulattoes was punishable by banishment or penal servitude. A law was passed by the Assembly, in 1730, that an owner who happened to kill one of his own slaves, when punishing him, should not be called to account, in any way ; but if any one killed a slave maliciously he should pay a fine of £10, and also the price of the slave, if it belonged to another person. On several occasions there were apprehensions of insurrections or mutinies among the free colored people and slaves against the whites. In November, 1656, such a conspiracy to kill all the whites was dis- covered, and nine negroes were tried and convicted. Two were executed and others were banished to Elentheria. On this occasion, under Governor Forster, the following and other severe laws were enacted. "(1) It is ordered that from henceforth none of the negroes of these Islands to whomsoever they do belong, or of what sort soever they are, shall have liberty to straggle or wander from their master's houses or lands after halfe an hour after the setting of the sunne, without a passe or tickett under their handes to whom they do belonge, w'ch is to be granted only upon some weighty occasion moveing thereunto. But such negroes being found stragglinge w'thout their leaves or their warrentall Tickett as afores'd, walking in the night as afores'd, it shall be at the j:>ower of any English man that meets such a negroe to kill him then & thiere without rnercye. And if any such negroe shall refuse to be apprehended, and doth resist the Englishman, and he doth not make speedy pursuit against him, and shall not forthwith give information to the next magistral, Then he or they for thier neglect therein shall forfeit one hundred poundes of tobacco to be expended upon generall service * Cases when the same action was taken with white man are recorded in 1638 and 1631. In some cases, and perhaps generally, colored men were made execu- tioners of colored criminals only. A negro named John, having been convicted of stealing a boat, Aug. 17, 1664, was sentenced to be hanged, but the Governor reprieved him on condition that he should act as the executioner of negroes. Five days later ''Black Mathew " having been convicted of house breaking and escaping from jail, was banged at St. George's, and his severed bead, " by the Governor's order," was impaled on a stake at Stocks Point. 564 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. (2) It is likewise ordered that the negroes that are free men and women shal be banished from these Islands, never to returne eyther by purchase of any man, or otherwise, upon payne of forfeiting their said purchase in that case." In 1673, a " daingerous plot" was discovered among the negroes, some of whom confessed their guilt. Six were condemned to be branded or " stigmatized in ye face [forehead] with an hott iron, and their noses slitt, and whipped; and ye rest of ye negroes stigmatized and whipt." The hot iron bore the letter "R." A conspiracy which was discovered among the slaves in 1761, to rise and massacre the whites, caused great alarm, for a time, and martial law was declared by the Governor. One negro slave, sup- posed to be the leader, having been convicted was burned and hanged in Warwick Parish, but the evidence against him was not very positive. Several persons were believed to have been poisoned by the slaves at that time. During a large part of the slavery period in Bermuda, the slaves were allowed very few religious privileges and very little education, but in these respects the custom varied at different times. Many religious differences among the clergymen and sects were partly due to disagreements as to the propriety of allowing the slaves certain religious privileges, like christening, baptism,* or burial services. In the 17th century clergymen of the Established Church seem to have been generally opposed to such innovations, though there were exceptions. This reluctance to grant religious privileges continued down to the time of the abolition of slavery. One great reason for the strenuous persecution of the Quakers, in the 17th century, was because they desired to teach the negroes. In the official statement of the Company, in 1679, they mentioned that onlv about one-half the nesa-o children were christened. The slaves were allowed legal marriage from the first, and when man and wife belonged to different owners, thev were allowed by law or custom to be together Sundays or other specified times, and their children alternatel}" were to become the property of each owner of the parents. In 1656, the owners of slaves were required to take them to church with themselves, wherever they went. * It is mentioned that when the slaves had been baptized, they believed that they had thereby acquired a right to their freedom. When any funeral ceremony was held, it usually consisted in the reading of the burial service by some aged colored man. A. E. Verritt — The Bermuda Islands. 565 The Rev. Samson Bond was one of the ministers who opposed the conversion of negroes. He brought a presentment against the Governor for favoring it, " and further did alleadgue that the breed- ing up of such children in the Christian religion makes them stub- borne." For these opinions and other reasons he was dismissed by the Company, in 1668, which, at that particular date, favored their con- version, though the colonists generally opposed it. The Rev. Samuel Smith, in 1609, brought the question before the Council, whether or not he should baptize negroes, mulattoes, and Indians, but the Council refused to decide the question. In loso, the Assembly passed an act against baptizing negroes. The Rev. A. Richardson, of St. George's, stated that in 1756 he baptized 147 negroes, and in 1757, 377 more. Indian Slaves. Although the slaves were mostly negroes or mulattoes, some Indian slaves were also brought from the West Indies in the earlier years, and Indians, captured in the Pequot wars and King Philip's war, were sent from New England and sold as slaves to the Bermu- dians.* The number of Indians held as slaves does not appear to have been large at any time. There are not many records of their arrival, and so far as appears from these there were more brought from the West Indies than from New England. There is a record that Capt. Win. Jackson brought many Indians and negroes, captured from the Spaniards in 1644-5, from the West Indies. It was intimated by the Company, in 1655, that 40 or more freeborn Indians had been illegally taken from the West Indies and sold in the Bermudas as slaves, about 1644-40. The Governor was ordered to free them if they could be found. The sale of 10 Indians, mostly Avomen, is recorded in 1040, and of others in 1045 ; probably these were part of those referred to by the Company as freeborn. The prices were mostly from £7 to £10 each. There is also a record * A law was passed in Massachusetts, in 1652, that those Indians who had been taken captive, or who had surrendered themselves in the Pequot or King Philip's wars, should be sold as slaves in Bermuda and other places, or else become slaves |n New England. Some of these slaves appear in the Bermuda records of 1653 and later. 566 A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. of some Indians returned to the West Indies in August, 165S, probably some of the same lot. The Indians and negroes intermarried freely, but the Indians being relatively few, their descendants show but little of the Indian char- acteristics, though even to this day some of the negroes sIioav more or less traces of Indian blood. Formerly many of them showed such characteristics much more decidedly. The negro slaves always increased more rapidly than the whites and they became too numer- ous at times, so that employment could not be found for them, while their masters found it hard to clothe and feed them. A few slaves were sometimes sold to go away from the islands. Thus the sale of 14 negroes and one Indian, to go to Porto Rico, is on record. Some were sold to Virginia. In the Royal Gazette for Jan. 17, 1784, (No. 1), Tucker & Co., of St. George's, advertised to purchase some of the "idle negroes" in order "to send them to a country where they may be profitably employed," by the ship " Queen Charlotte," then loading for Charleston, S. C. A law was passed even as early as 1674, prohibiting the importation of any more slaves. Probably very few were ever imported directly from Africa, and perhaps none from Virginia. So far as the records show, they nearly all came from the West Indies, either by purchase, or by capture from the Dutch and Spanish. In 1672, it was ordered that all free negroes should apprentice themselves to masters or immediately " depart the Hands." The Company enacted a law in 1674 that any negroes brought to the islands, and remaining more than 24 hours should be seized and kept as " slaves to the Company." It was ordained by the Company, in 1674, that the laws of Eng- land should apply equally to the negroes and whites. When slavery was finally abolished, in 1834, the number of slaves reported was 4,026, and their value was estimated at £1*75,194 sterling. White Slaves. In the years of the early settlement, 1612-25 and later, many white persons were virtually held as slaves. Parties of women were several times sent out by the Company to be sold (for wives) to the highest bidders, or else for some definite price. Governor Butler, writing of the arrival of the Joseph, in liii'n, remarks as follows: — "In this shyp came over likewise divers newe A. JE. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 567 planters, and among them certaine young maycles (or, at the least, single women), sent over at the cost and by the pious intention (as the generall letters sayd) of some Adventurous of the Company to make wives for such single men of the country as would paye one hundred poundes of tobacco apeece for every one of them." It is not surprising, therefore, that soon after this we read of women being often punished at the whipping posts and ducking stools, and in other ways. ~~S P Gcotvc id '"Warwicks forte Figure 3.1.— Old St. George's Town, in 16'22, after Norwood, from a print pub- lished in 1624 by Capt. John Smith, showing the Governor's House, Guns, and Stocks in the foreground ; the Church near the middle ; E. Warwick's Fort. All the roofs are thatched with palmetto leaves. Children of poor debtors could be sold, after the death of their parents, to pay debts. Boj r s sent out for apprentices were often sold to the highest bidders, and were practically slaves for a term of years. The laborers, both men and women, thus sent out were mostly a very disreputable class. They were occasionally taken from the prisons, and sometimes they were impressed from the streets, by order of the King, both for Bermuda and Virginia. 568 A. K VerriU—The Bermuda Islands. Governor Butler complained to the Company that they had treated him unfairly and unjustly in several particulars ; one item is as follows : — "Because the tenne [laborers] that were sent him out of Xewgate are a burthen unto him, because the men cannot worke, and if they could he hath no ground to place them on : neither will any hire them, because they came out of Xewgate. The woemen are many of them with childe and their Bastards to be be kept by him : both men and woemen are like to go naked or to bee cloathed by him.'' The following passage from Governor Butler's history (1022) further shows the character of many of the early inhabitants : "Twenty criminall prisonners brought to the barre, to the great discontent (as well as trouble) of the Governour, who plainely found thes unexpected ill fruicts of the misuse of his former wonted clemencye, that a wraunglinge and stiffnecked people, as the most of thes proved themselves (being, to say truth for the greatest part, improvidently and wreatchedly raked up out of the London kennells), wer not to be mannaged with so smoothe and gentle a snaffle as he (out of his naturall disposition) had thetherto employed, and, there- fore, openly professed himselfe happy, and a glad man that he was so shortly to leave them. And the rather he became fully assured hereof, by the cryeinge and outrageous crimes, that three of these foresayd prisoners wer nowe in hold for." Population. The population during the first century is rarely given definitely. but can sometimes be estimated from the recorded taxes or levies of tobacco and corn. Governor Butler stated that when he left, in L622, there were about 1,500 people. At certain periods many persons migrated from Bermuda. Some- times this was on account of religious persecutions, as when Eleutheria was settled in 1049 by Bermuda dissenters or Independents, who shortly after nearly starved to death and were relieved by contribu- tions sent from New England and Bermuda, in 1050. But in other cases it seems to have been merely because they hoped to better their condition, for Bermuda early came to be overpopulated in proportion to its resources, as they then existed. In the "Orders and Constitutions " adopted by the Bermuda Com- pany in 1022, article 212, it is stated that the Virginia Company had agreed to allow them a large tract of land in Virginia, on account of the small amount in Bermuda. Therefore, when lJermuda became A. M Verr'dl — The Bermuda Islands. 569 over-populated about 1639, and the people began to emigrate in numbers to the West Indies, the Company petitioned to the " Lords Comissioners for Forraigne Plantacons," July 28, 1639, that such a tract of land should be assigned them according to the agreement, in Virginia, between the Rapahanock and Patowmack [Potomac] rivers. In their petition they state that the people had become so numerous in Bermuda that "they are not able to siibsist," that several times parties had migrated or " inconsiderately desperced themselves into other parts and especially the last yeare, when aboiit one hundred and thirty persons have in like manner transplanted themselves into the Island of St. Luzea [Lucia] without provision or Amunicon befitting a Plantacon ; where your petitioners understand that they have already both bin assaulted by the Saviges, very much sicknesse, and other descomforts, insomuch as there was not one of them in health at the date of the last ltres receaved thence." They added that they understood that 400 or 500 more were ready "to depart the Islands, and that many more must of necessity yeai-ety depart, by reason of the increase of the people and the straitness of the place." The land granted is said to have been the tract still called the " Bermuda Hundred," but not the same tract mentioned in the peti- tion. It does not appear that this effort led to any large emigration to Virginia.* Two hundred emigrants are mentioned in the records as having sailed for Jamaica in October, 1657, on the "Golden Falcon," and 200 more, Jan. 1, 1658. Many persons also went to Barbadoes, from time to time. Richard Stafford, in his letter to the Ro3 T al Society in 1668, mentions that some of the people were then emigrating to New Providence, and some were already settled there. Laws were very early made forbidding Quakers and Catholics to remain on the islands. The Quakers were constantly persecuted, * Perhaps unrecorded vessels may have taken parties of emigrants to Virginia to settle on the " Bermuda Hundred," made famous by the civil war. There are many coincidences and similarities of family names in Virginia and Bermuda. But this may be because both colonies wei-e settled at about the same time and by people from the same localities, rather than due to emigration from Ber- muda. As an illustration of these interesting coincidences, I may cite the fol- lowing case : In November, 1650, George. Washington was charged with treason and tried, but he appealed to the English Government. The final result is not recorded, so far as I know, nor do I know whether he was an ancestor of General George Washington, but he may well have been of the same family stock. 570 A. E. Verrill—The Bermuda Islands. from the first, and many were imprisoned and finally sent away. Many Catholics were deported to Barbadoes in 1672, and others were banished at various times. So long as the islands were gov- erned by the Company, Catholics, if known, were thus summarily disposed of. Very few, it seems, went there except in the case of shipwreck. Capt. John Smith, 1629, stated that the population was then from 2,000 to 3,000. In 1648 there was a levy of 17 lbs. of tobacco from every house- holder, making a total of 5,571 lbs. This would make 328 house- holders, not counting slaves. Tobacco was then reckoned at Is 6d per pound. In the official statement made by the Company to the Government, in 1679, the total population was put at 8,000 : 400 planters ; about 1,000 white men able to bear arms; births, about 120 annually (about one-half christened); deaths, about 20 annually. Apparently the pojmlation decreased considerably after the dis- solution of the Company in 1684, as did the area of land cultivated.* Probably it did not increase materially, if at all, during any part of the next century, but during most of that time it was undoubtedly much diminished; it has very much increased during the past forty years. In 1789, the population was estimated at 10,381, of which 5,462 were white, and 4,919 negroes and mulattoes. The total in 1833 was stated at 9,195: of which 4,297 were white; 3,612 slaves;! and 1,286 free colored. In 1835, the total was officially given as 8,810: of which 4,259 were white and 4,459 colored. The emancipation of the slaves, just before that time, apparently led to a considerable decrease in the number of the colored people by emigration, but since then they have increased more rapidly than the whites, in spite of a much higher death rate. In 1842 there were 4,058 whites, 4,566 colored ; total s,<>24. The births were 130 whites, 206 colored; deaths, 75 whites, 137 colored. Ratios of deaths per 1,000 : 19 whites, 30 colored. In 1871, the total population was 12,121. According to the census of 1891, the total population was 15,013 : whites, 5,960, colored, * The amount of land cultivated in 1832 is said to have been 456 acres ; in 1833, 587 acres, with 3,258 acres in pasture, feeding 1,897 cattle, 215 horses, 148 sheep, 243 goats. In 1835, 601 acres were cultivated. In 1901, according to the census returns, 2,636 acres were cultivated. f There is a curious discrepancy here, for the number of slaves reported for emancipation and valuation the next year, 1834, was 4,026, an increase of over 400 in a year. A. E. Verrill — The Bermuda Islands. 571 9,323. In 1901, the total was 17,535 : whites, (5,383 ; colored, 11,152. Of the total number about 2,100 were living in Hamilton, and 1,000 in St. George's. These returns do not include those belonging to the military and naval establishments. 24. — Character and Origin of the Original Flora. Although we have much valuable information, preserved in the early writings, as to the character of the terrestrial flora, as it existed in Figure 32. — Tall Palmetto growing in Pembroke Marsh. Phot. 1901. 1609-15, much the greater part relates to the trees and to a few other plants that had some direct or immediate use. It is now, of course, verv difficult to distinguish, in the case of weeds and other incon- 572 A. K Verrill— The Bermuda Islands. spicuous plants, between those subsequently introduced and tliose that were native there before the settlement. Each case must be judged by itself, taking into account the probable chances of natural introduction, the manner of occurrence, etc. Only very few plants are peculiar to the islands, or endemic, and of these the palmetto is the only conspicuous one. (See ch. 26, a, Figure 33. — Bermuda Blue-eyed Grass (Sisyr in ehium Bermudianum). figs. 4, 3l ; , 39). Most of the other native plants were derived from the West Indies and the North American coastal regions.* When the islands were first settled the flora was remarkable for the scarcity of edible plants. The only herbaceous plant mentioned, that could afford any human food, was the "prickly pear' 1 or cactus * Iu naming the native Bermuda plants I have followed pretty closely the nomenclature used by Hemsley, in Voy. C'hall., Botany, vol. 1. A. E. VerrtlP—The Bermuda Islands. 5 73 ( Opuntia), which still grows abundantly on the barren cliffs by the sea. Its berries were eaten, "both raw and cooked, by the early set- tlers. There are no fruits mentioned, except the berries of the palmetto, cedar, and wild mulberry, although a few shrubs, with more or less edible berries, still exist that were probably native.* But the settlers may not have known that they were edible or they ma}" have been so scarce that they were of no importance to them. Figure 84. — Bermuda Maiden-hair Fern (Adiantum bellum). The list of existing flowering plants an